1. Spacial of different kinds
Interiority, exteriority, superiority, inferiority, proximity, continuity…
2. Temporal
A point in time, a period in time, frequency
3. Abstract
(He is good at mathematics.)
- In different context the same preposition may carry different meaning Þ may be differently classifies
· Overlap with other word-classes:
1. Prepositional overlap with adverbs
2. Prepositional overlap with conjunctions
Temporal, special prepositions (before, since, after) ® depends on the structure
3. Prepositional overlap with verbs
(regarding…)
Syntactic function of the prepositional group
1. At group level
- as an element of the prepositional group
§ qualifier in a nominal group (Have you got any books on mathematics?)
§ qualifier in an adjectival group (My son is brilliant at mathematics.)
§ qualifier in an adverbial group (They don’t live far from here.)
§ completive in another prepositional group (I’m free everyday except on Monday.)
2. At clause level
- as sequential element at clause with exception of predicator
§ adjunct most typical (All this happened before the war.)
§ subject (After lunch it’ll be the best.)
§ prepositional object (I don’t believe in wasting money.)
§ subject complement (Monica must be out of her mind.)
§ object complement (His illness left him without a job.)
§ predicator complement (The procession came to a holt.)
§ disjunct (In all honesty I don’t believe a word he said.)
§ conjunct (In that case I am leaving, too.)
- as an element of the prepositional group
§ qualifier in a nominal group (Have you got any books on mathematics?)
§ qualifier in an adjectival group (My son is brilliant at mathematics.)
§ qualifier in an adverbial group (They don’t live far from here.)
§ completive in another prepositional group (I’m free everyday except on Monday.)
2. At clause level
- as sequential element at clause with exception of predicator
§ adjunct most typical (All this happened before the war.)
§ subject (After lunch it’ll be the best.)
§ prepositional object (I don’t believe in wasting money.)
§ subject complement (Monica must be out of her mind.)
§ object complement (His illness left him without a job.)
§ predicator complement (The procession came to a holt.)
§ disjunct (In all honesty I don’t believe a word he said.)
§ conjunct (In that case I am leaving, too.)
The choice of prepositions
- Prepositions are not specific in meaning
1. Bound prepositions
Govern by the words that precede them
§ Verbs (agree on something, with someone, insist on, pay for, amount to, hope for)
§ Nouns (damage to, aliking for, attack on, confidence in)
§ Adjectives (compatible with, opposed to, free from, rich in, lacking in, good at, good for)
2. Free prepositions
The choice is determined by a kind of relationship the speaker wishes to apply
(We flew in / into / out of / through / above / beneath / close to / near to the clouds.)
· Discontinuous prepositional group:
- Preposition is separated from its completive (What are they interested in?)
§ Occurs in cleft clauses (I’m concerned about your health.
Þ to emphasize It is your health I’m concerned about.)
§ Occurs in restrictive clauses (His work is the only thing that he thinks about.)
§ Occurs in passive structures (My opinion is never asked for.)
§ Occurs in paraphrases of clauses with anticipatory it
(It’s easy to get on with my boss. Þ My boss is easy to get on with.)
§ Occurs in interrogative and relative clauses (Who can we rely on?)
(Here’s the book you were looking for.)
® There is strong tendency to perceive a preposition as part of verb
1. Bound prepositions
Govern by the words that precede them
§ Verbs (agree on something, with someone, insist on, pay for, amount to, hope for)
§ Nouns (damage to, aliking for, attack on, confidence in)
§ Adjectives (compatible with, opposed to, free from, rich in, lacking in, good at, good for)
2. Free prepositions
The choice is determined by a kind of relationship the speaker wishes to apply
(We flew in / into / out of / through / above / beneath / close to / near to the clouds.)
· Discontinuous prepositional group:
- Preposition is separated from its completive (What are they interested in?)
§ Occurs in cleft clauses (I’m concerned about your health.
Þ to emphasize It is your health I’m concerned about.)
§ Occurs in restrictive clauses (His work is the only thing that he thinks about.)
§ Occurs in passive structures (My opinion is never asked for.)
§ Occurs in paraphrases of clauses with anticipatory it
(It’s easy to get on with my boss. Þ My boss is easy to get on with.)
§ Occurs in interrogative and relative clauses (Who can we rely on?)
(Here’s the book you were looking for.)
® There is strong tendency to perceive a preposition as part of verb
The structure of the prepositional group / phrase (PrepG
- Preposition can never stand alone ® obligatory combinations with other words
- Exocentric = the head is always preposition (x endocentric = modifiers and quantifiers are optional)
§ can be preceded by optional modifier
§ can be followed by obligatory completive (obligatory because preposition can’t stand alone)
straight along this road
just at the moment
quite near here
only by studying hard
Completive
Realizations: nominal group
adjectival group (in private)
adverbial group (for ever)
prepositional group (except inhere)
finite wh- clauses (Have you decided about where you are leaving?)
non-finite wh- clauses (Have you any problems apart from where to stay?)
non-finite -ing clauses (by studying hard)
Cannot by completive: finite that clause (He was surprised at that she noticed him.)
Þ leave out the preposition
Þ change the structure (at her noticing him)
to- infinitive clause (He was surprised at to see her.)
Þ leave out the preposition
Þ change to- to –ing (at seeing her)
subjective form of pronoun (He was surprised at she.)
Þ objective case of pronoun (at her)
Modifier
Semantically can represent grading (Put the picture more to the left.)
intensification (completely out of focus, entirely beyond comprehension)
attenuation makes the meaning less intense
(partly without understanding)
quantification (20 miles from here, 20 years after his death)
focusing (mainly under the impression)
Occasionally intensification modifier can be at the end
- Exocentric = the head is always preposition (x endocentric = modifiers and quantifiers are optional)
§ can be preceded by optional modifier
§ can be followed by obligatory completive (obligatory because preposition can’t stand alone)
straight along this road
just at the moment
quite near here
only by studying hard
Completive
Realizations: nominal group
adjectival group (in private)
adverbial group (for ever)
prepositional group (except inhere)
finite wh- clauses (Have you decided about where you are leaving?)
non-finite wh- clauses (Have you any problems apart from where to stay?)
non-finite -ing clauses (by studying hard)
Cannot by completive: finite that clause (He was surprised at that she noticed him.)
Þ leave out the preposition
Þ change the structure (at her noticing him)
to- infinitive clause (He was surprised at to see her.)
Þ leave out the preposition
Þ change to- to –ing (at seeing her)
subjective form of pronoun (He was surprised at she.)
Þ objective case of pronoun (at her)
Modifier
Semantically can represent grading (Put the picture more to the left.)
intensification (completely out of focus, entirely beyond comprehension)
attenuation makes the meaning less intense
(partly without understanding)
quantification (20 miles from here, 20 years after his death)
focusing (mainly under the impression)
Occasionally intensification modifier can be at the end
PREPOSITIONS
- Do not denote any specific meaning, but different types of relationship between different linguistic units
- They have a different meaning in different context
- Primarily grammatical words ® express grammatical relations
- Lexical-grammatical use in language
· Lexical-morphology of prepositions:
1. Simple many of them occur in the class of adverbs
(at, by, in, of, down, up, from)
2. Participial derived from participles of verbs
(considering, regarding, concerning, notwithstanding = navzdory)
3. Compound (within, outside, underneath, throughout)
4. Two-word written as two words, but in text considered to be one preposition
combination of preposition, adjective, adverb, conjunction + preposition
(along with, except for, but for, instead of, because of, near to, far from)
5. Three-word in the text considered to be one because they express one type of meaning
preposition + noun, adjective + preposition
(by way of, by means of, on behalf of, in view of, on account of, in front of)
- They have a different meaning in different context
- Primarily grammatical words ® express grammatical relations
- Lexical-grammatical use in language
· Lexical-morphology of prepositions:
1. Simple many of them occur in the class of adverbs
(at, by, in, of, down, up, from)
2. Participial derived from participles of verbs
(considering, regarding, concerning, notwithstanding = navzdory)
3. Compound (within, outside, underneath, throughout)
4. Two-word written as two words, but in text considered to be one preposition
combination of preposition, adjective, adverb, conjunction + preposition
(along with, except for, but for, instead of, because of, near to, far from)
5. Three-word in the text considered to be one because they express one type of meaning
preposition + noun, adjective + preposition
(by way of, by means of, on behalf of, in view of, on account of, in front of)
CONJUNCTIONS
- Joins together Þ belongs to syntax than to morphology
· Lexical-morphology:
1. Simple (and, but, while, as)
2. Compound (because = by cause of in the past, unless, until, wherever)
3. Groups (as if, as though, even if, even though)
4. Complex combination with verb or derived (provided that, supposing that, considering that, see that)
® that is optional
contain a noun (in case, in order that, in spite of the fact that)
® that is obligatory except in case
adverbial (so long as, as soon as, as far as, much as, as well as)
5. Conjunctive prepositions cause of overlap (before, after, since, from, by, in, with, without)
· Syntactic types:
- Determined by kind of relation they express in the sentence
1. Coordinating (and, or, nor, but, so, for = neboť)
2. Subordinating
· Lexical-morphology:
1. Simple (and, but, while, as)
2. Compound (because = by cause of in the past, unless, until, wherever)
3. Groups (as if, as though, even if, even though)
4. Complex combination with verb or derived (provided that, supposing that, considering that, see that)
® that is optional
contain a noun (in case, in order that, in spite of the fact that)
® that is obligatory except in case
adverbial (so long as, as soon as, as far as, much as, as well as)
5. Conjunctive prepositions cause of overlap (before, after, since, from, by, in, with, without)
· Syntactic types:
- Determined by kind of relation they express in the sentence
1. Coordinating (and, or, nor, but, so, for = neboť)
2. Subordinating
Multi-word verbs
Phrasal verbs
§ Combination of lexical verb and adverbial particle
Intransitive
§ doesn’t need an object
The injured man came to. (Přišel k sobě.)
The music died away.
Stop messing about. (Přestaň blbnout.)
Transitive
§ require object
They broke down the door.
Let’s take back the glasses.
They called off the meeting.
They ruled us about.
§ 2 possible positions of object; both acceptable
verb + adverbial particle + object
verb + object + adverbial particle
§ when object is pronoun, it is in the middle
Prepositional verbs
Lexical verb + preposition (semantically associated ® meaningful unit)
look into, call for, set about, come by, make for, see to, deal with
o Always require prepositional object; object always follow preposition
§ Difference between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs:
o Preposition can’t be placed after object x adverbial particle can be placed after object
He broke with his girlfriend. x He broke up the party. / He broke the party up.
o Pronoun follows preposition x pronoun precedes adverbial particle
He broke with her. x He broke it up.
o Wh- interrogative preceded by preposition but not by adverbial particle
With whom did he break? x Up what did he break? - IMPOSSIBLE
The girl with whom he broke. x The party up which he broke. – IMPOSSIBLE
The party which he broke up.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs
§ Combination of phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs
§ Lexical verb + adverbial particle and preposition
look forward to, run up against, do away with, cut down on, go in for
Non-idiomatic and idiomatic combinations in all 3 types of verbs:
The boys have put up the tent.
meaning stays the same
They’re putting up new blocks of flats. shift of meaning
They’ve put the fares up. idiomatic
I can put up two of you over the week. fully idiomatic
She’ll put up the fonds. fully idiomatic
They put up the house for sale. idiomatic
o degrees of idiomaticity:
Take the cat in. - non-idiomatic
I have to take my skirt in. - half-idiom (zmenšit sukni)
I’m always taken in by foolish jokes. - idiomatic
Prepositional verbs can have 2 objects (belong to idiomaticity as well)
o 1st noun is object of the verb – idiomatic unit
o 2nd noun is object of preposition
to lose touch with somebody
to turn one’s hand to something
to set fire to the house
to lose track of something
to catch sight of something
Phased processes
§ consist of 2 lexical verbs, don’t mean action
o 1st lexical verb indicates phase of process
o 2nd lexical verb indicates process itself
It started to rain. / it continued raining. / it stopped raining.
o 1st verb in finite form always
o 2nd in infinitive with to or in -ing form
§ alternatives verb of phase admits both infinitive and -ing form
types of phase
o of initiation (the beginning of the action) begin, start
o of continuation continue, go on, proceed, carry on, keep on
o of termination (the end of the action) stop, finish, cease
o of seeming or becoming real appear, seem, turn out
o of attempting, succeeding, failing try, venture, succeed, manage, fail
o of manner or attitude happen, hesitate, regret, tend, venture
Verbs with to-infinitive
appear, chance, come, fail, happen, help, hesitate, manage, prove, regret, seem, tend, try, turn out, venture, neglect, hasten, pretend, decline
Verbs with -ing form
go on, keep on, carry on, continue
Verbs with either to-infinitive or -ing form
begin, start, cease, bother
Verbs with either to-infinitive or -ing form or -ed form
get to know somebody, get going, get started
§ Combination of lexical verb and adverbial particle
Intransitive
§ doesn’t need an object
The injured man came to. (Přišel k sobě.)
The music died away.
Stop messing about. (Přestaň blbnout.)
Transitive
§ require object
They broke down the door.
Let’s take back the glasses.
They called off the meeting.
They ruled us about.
§ 2 possible positions of object; both acceptable
verb + adverbial particle + object
verb + object + adverbial particle
§ when object is pronoun, it is in the middle
Prepositional verbs
Lexical verb + preposition (semantically associated ® meaningful unit)
look into, call for, set about, come by, make for, see to, deal with
o Always require prepositional object; object always follow preposition
§ Difference between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs:
o Preposition can’t be placed after object x adverbial particle can be placed after object
He broke with his girlfriend. x He broke up the party. / He broke the party up.
o Pronoun follows preposition x pronoun precedes adverbial particle
He broke with her. x He broke it up.
o Wh- interrogative preceded by preposition but not by adverbial particle
With whom did he break? x Up what did he break? - IMPOSSIBLE
The girl with whom he broke. x The party up which he broke. – IMPOSSIBLE
The party which he broke up.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs
§ Combination of phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs
§ Lexical verb + adverbial particle and preposition
look forward to, run up against, do away with, cut down on, go in for
Non-idiomatic and idiomatic combinations in all 3 types of verbs:
The boys have put up the tent.
meaning stays the same
They’re putting up new blocks of flats. shift of meaning
They’ve put the fares up. idiomatic
I can put up two of you over the week. fully idiomatic
She’ll put up the fonds. fully idiomatic
They put up the house for sale. idiomatic
o degrees of idiomaticity:
Take the cat in. - non-idiomatic
I have to take my skirt in. - half-idiom (zmenšit sukni)
I’m always taken in by foolish jokes. - idiomatic
Prepositional verbs can have 2 objects (belong to idiomaticity as well)
o 1st noun is object of the verb – idiomatic unit
o 2nd noun is object of preposition
to lose touch with somebody
to turn one’s hand to something
to set fire to the house
to lose track of something
to catch sight of something
Phased processes
§ consist of 2 lexical verbs, don’t mean action
o 1st lexical verb indicates phase of process
o 2nd lexical verb indicates process itself
It started to rain. / it continued raining. / it stopped raining.
o 1st verb in finite form always
o 2nd in infinitive with to or in -ing form
§ alternatives verb of phase admits both infinitive and -ing form
types of phase
o of initiation (the beginning of the action) begin, start
o of continuation continue, go on, proceed, carry on, keep on
o of termination (the end of the action) stop, finish, cease
o of seeming or becoming real appear, seem, turn out
o of attempting, succeeding, failing try, venture, succeed, manage, fail
o of manner or attitude happen, hesitate, regret, tend, venture
Verbs with to-infinitive
appear, chance, come, fail, happen, help, hesitate, manage, prove, regret, seem, tend, try, turn out, venture, neglect, hasten, pretend, decline
Verbs with -ing form
go on, keep on, carry on, continue
Verbs with either to-infinitive or -ing form
begin, start, cease, bother
Verbs with either to-infinitive or -ing form or -ed form
get to know somebody, get going, get started
Verbs-Semantic classes
Stative verbs
represent states; don’t use progressive
§ Relational verbs be, seem, become (ing form)
§ Verbs of involuntary perception see, hear, feel, taste, (watch, listen – voluntary)
§ Verbs of cognition know, understand, recognise
§ Verbs of affectivity love, dislike, hate, prefer, relish
§ Verbs of position ® between stative and dynamic verbs
stand, sit, lie
Dynamic verbs
3 senses of contrasts
§ durative x punctual (activity taking time x point of time)
run x stop, write x knock
§ agentive x non-agentive ® depends on person’s volation
she is writing x it is raining
wink x she blink
§ bounded x unbounded (directed to point of time x go without stop to its aim)
die x sleep
§ progressive (-ing form) limits the verb to one point
He’s writing letters.
represent states; don’t use progressive
§ Relational verbs be, seem, become (ing form)
§ Verbs of involuntary perception see, hear, feel, taste, (watch, listen – voluntary)
§ Verbs of cognition know, understand, recognise
§ Verbs of affectivity love, dislike, hate, prefer, relish
§ Verbs of position ® between stative and dynamic verbs
stand, sit, lie
Dynamic verbs
3 senses of contrasts
§ durative x punctual (activity taking time x point of time)
run x stop, write x knock
§ agentive x non-agentive ® depends on person’s volation
she is writing x it is raining
wink x she blink
§ bounded x unbounded (directed to point of time x go without stop to its aim)
die x sleep
§ progressive (-ing form) limits the verb to one point
He’s writing letters.
Verbs-Grammatical categories
Carried by the form of the verb (main verb of first auxiliary) or the operator
Person – distinction in person singular
Number – 3rd person –s; others don’t
Tense – write ® wrote, run ® ran, play ® played
Mood
o unmarked indicative I go
o marked imperative Go, Let’s go
o subjunctive He goes, I wish he went
Carried by separate auxiliary verbs
Mood
§ unmarked declarative
§ marked interrogative (by auxiliary verb)
Polarity
§ unmarked aformative
§ marked negative
Modality
§ marked deontic (you must; dispoziční modality)
§ marked epistemic
Aspect
§ marked perfective (auxiliary have)
§ marked progressive (auxiliary be)
Voice
§ unmarked active
§ marked passive (auxiliary be)
Person – distinction in person singular
Number – 3rd person –s; others don’t
Tense – write ® wrote, run ® ran, play ® played
Mood
o unmarked indicative I go
o marked imperative Go, Let’s go
o subjunctive He goes, I wish he went
Carried by separate auxiliary verbs
Mood
§ unmarked declarative
§ marked interrogative (by auxiliary verb)
Polarity
§ unmarked aformative
§ marked negative
Modality
§ marked deontic (you must; dispoziční modality)
§ marked epistemic
Aspect
§ marked perfective (auxiliary have)
§ marked progressive (auxiliary be)
Voice
§ unmarked active
§ marked passive (auxiliary be)
VERBS
§ Hinge life into situations, hinge action
§ Most complex, important word class ® express great number of grammatical categories
§ Way we perceive processes:
states, activities (produced by agent), actions, acts, events, happenings (without helping by agent)
§ Semantic classification of verbs is based on our perception of 3 processes:
material process - may be observed in their progression as they happen (walk, read, write)
relational process - process established relation between entities (belong, be, depend, see)
mental process - in people’s minds; not directly observable (know, think, like, hate)
Lexical morphology:
Simple
meaning conveyed by one form
I write
I am writing / have been writing still simple; just different form of writing
Multi-word verbs
meaning conveyed by two or more forms
look up, look forward to
§ Most complex, important word class ® express great number of grammatical categories
§ Way we perceive processes:
states, activities (produced by agent), actions, acts, events, happenings (without helping by agent)
§ Semantic classification of verbs is based on our perception of 3 processes:
material process - may be observed in their progression as they happen (walk, read, write)
relational process - process established relation between entities (belong, be, depend, see)
mental process - in people’s minds; not directly observable (know, think, like, hate)
Lexical morphology:
Simple
meaning conveyed by one form
I write
I am writing / have been writing still simple; just different form of writing
Multi-word verbs
meaning conveyed by two or more forms
look up, look forward to
The structure of adjectival group
pre-head / modifier head post-head / qualifiers
extremely hot indeed
very difficult to solve
quite fond of music
so glad that you won the match
· adjectival group doesn’t have a determiner
modifier:
intensification:
quite, most, very, pretty, fairly
o and fixed collocations (raving mad, dripping wet, boiling hot, freezing cold, blind drunk, dead straight, wide awake, fast asleep)
attenuation:
slightly, a little, a bit, kind of, sort of
quantification:
The ocean is one mile deep, The lecture was two hours
that, so, such I didn’t know he is that old.
o (something between comparison and quantification)
It was such an interesting trip.
description:
dark blue, bright red
qualifier:
o non-finite clauses
Smoking is difficult to give up.
o prepositional groups
good at mathematics, quick in though
o items of comparison
not as easy as expected, he is better than I though
o expression of sufficiency enough
extremely hot indeed
very difficult to solve
quite fond of music
so glad that you won the match
· adjectival group doesn’t have a determiner
modifier:
intensification:
quite, most, very, pretty, fairly
o and fixed collocations (raving mad, dripping wet, boiling hot, freezing cold, blind drunk, dead straight, wide awake, fast asleep)
attenuation:
slightly, a little, a bit, kind of, sort of
quantification:
The ocean is one mile deep, The lecture was two hours
that, so, such I didn’t know he is that old.
o (something between comparison and quantification)
It was such an interesting trip.
description:
dark blue, bright red
qualifier:
o non-finite clauses
Smoking is difficult to give up.
o prepositional groups
good at mathematics, quick in though
o items of comparison
not as easy as expected, he is better than I though
o expression of sufficiency enough
Syntactic function of adjectives
used attributively
pre-modifiers in the nominal group (precede the noun), usually follow the determiner
that ugly modern picture.
they can be used in post-position
attribute is long adjectival phrase)
It is a house much bigger than the one we’ve got now.
in some institutional phrases; legal expressions (taken from French)
the president elect, the heir apparent
used predicatively
follow the verb in sentence; subject and object complements in a clause
The picture is ugly and modern. (subject complement)
pre-modifiers in the nominal group (precede the noun), usually follow the determiner
that ugly modern picture.
they can be used in post-position
attribute is long adjectival phrase)
It is a house much bigger than the one we’ve got now.
in some institutional phrases; legal expressions (taken from French)
the president elect, the heir apparent
used predicatively
follow the verb in sentence; subject and object complements in a clause
The picture is ugly and modern. (subject complement)
Ordering of adjectives in multiple pre-modification:
Ordering of adjectives in multiple pre-modification:
pre-central after determiner; usually adjectives non-gradable, used for emphasis
central subjective and objective epithets; subject comes as first
post-central participial adjective
pre-head classifiers; nearest to the noun
certain (emphasis)
rich (subjective)
old (objective)
retired (participial)
American (classifier)
Overlap with other word-classes:
with adverbs
function is different (fast, high, low, far, early, likely, weekly, daily, monthly)
daily newspapers (adjective) x newspapers come daily (adverb)
with verbs
it is a process itself in a progress; can’t be pre-modified
o ing – expresses the quality during the process
o ed – expresses the quality resulting from the precess
an approaching train (it’s not adjective but present participle)
the setting sun
a dying fashion (not adjective; you can’t say “extremely dying”)
a furnished room (not adjective)
Can’t be!!! a slightly setting sun
with nouns
● adjectives become nouns = nominalization
clever x stupid, young x old, beautiful x ugly
● nouns used as adjectives; pre-modified another noun
don’t allow pre-modification
a wool dress, a bus stop, a stone wall
pre-central after determiner; usually adjectives non-gradable, used for emphasis
central subjective and objective epithets; subject comes as first
post-central participial adjective
pre-head classifiers; nearest to the noun
certain (emphasis)
rich (subjective)
old (objective)
retired (participial)
American (classifier)
Overlap with other word-classes:
with adverbs
function is different (fast, high, low, far, early, likely, weekly, daily, monthly)
daily newspapers (adjective) x newspapers come daily (adverb)
with verbs
it is a process itself in a progress; can’t be pre-modified
o ing – expresses the quality during the process
o ed – expresses the quality resulting from the precess
an approaching train (it’s not adjective but present participle)
the setting sun
a dying fashion (not adjective; you can’t say “extremely dying”)
a furnished room (not adjective)
Can’t be!!! a slightly setting sun
with nouns
● adjectives become nouns = nominalization
clever x stupid, young x old, beautiful x ugly
● nouns used as adjectives; pre-modified another noun
don’t allow pre-modification
a wool dress, a bus stop, a stone wall
Adjectives-Grammatical categories, Semantic sublclasses of adj. as modifiers
· notional = derived from nouns
comparison / grading
exists only with adjectives and adverbs
means the expression of a comparison:
o to a higher degree (more, most) / positive
o to the same degree (as nice as) / comparative
o to a lower degree (less, least) / superlative
has 2 forms
inflectional
o by endings
periphrastic
o adjective is modified by more and most
o determined by the length of adjective
o two forms because of taking over from French grammar
Semantic subclasses of adjectives as modifiers:
stative x dynamic
stative = permanent quality which doesn’t allow progressive in a sentence (alive, dead, tall)
John is clever. (stative)
John has being clever. (dynamic – temporative quality)
John is a quick runner. (stative)
Be quick! (dynamic)
gradable x non-gradable
utter, top can’t be graded; express the gradable quality we can perceive
dead, optimal classes can’t be graded; express an absolute quality
inherent x non-inherent
inherent adjectives are used to denote an integral quality
non-inherent adjectives express the relationship, circumstance
a wooden cross (inherent) x a wooden actor (non-inherent)
a firm handshake (inherent) x a firm friend (non-inherent)
epithets x classifiers
epithets describe objective and subjective qualities of the entity
classifiers assign an entity to classes
beautiful music (epithet) x baroc music (classifier)
a long article (epithet) x a leading article (classifier)
a wet road (epithet) x a main roada diligent worker (epithet) x a social worker (classifier
comparison / grading
exists only with adjectives and adverbs
means the expression of a comparison:
o to a higher degree (more, most) / positive
o to the same degree (as nice as) / comparative
o to a lower degree (less, least) / superlative
has 2 forms
inflectional
o by endings
periphrastic
o adjective is modified by more and most
o determined by the length of adjective
o two forms because of taking over from French grammar
Semantic subclasses of adjectives as modifiers:
stative x dynamic
stative = permanent quality which doesn’t allow progressive in a sentence (alive, dead, tall)
John is clever. (stative)
John has being clever. (dynamic – temporative quality)
John is a quick runner. (stative)
Be quick! (dynamic)
gradable x non-gradable
utter, top can’t be graded; express the gradable quality we can perceive
dead, optimal classes can’t be graded; express an absolute quality
inherent x non-inherent
inherent adjectives are used to denote an integral quality
non-inherent adjectives express the relationship, circumstance
a wooden cross (inherent) x a wooden actor (non-inherent)
a firm handshake (inherent) x a firm friend (non-inherent)
epithets x classifiers
epithets describe objective and subjective qualities of the entity
classifiers assign an entity to classes
beautiful music (epithet) x baroc music (classifier)
a long article (epithet) x a leading article (classifier)
a wet road (epithet) x a main roada diligent worker (epithet) x a social worker (classifier
Notes concerning some pronouns
IT variety of functions
refer to specific object named in the context before
Where’s the book? It’s on the shelf.
refer to a situation anaphoricly described
There’s always a lot of noise in the evening. It annoys me.
refer to a process
We have to write long essays every week. It’s difficult.
refer to a fact
The bank won’t allow me a credit. It’s a problem.
refer to the subject and object of the clause
It’s obvious that they didn’t understand. extra-posed subject
They found it difficult to understand. extra-posed object
Personal pronoun functions alone as subject complement:
It’s me. general usage
refer to specific object named in the context before
Where’s the book? It’s on the shelf.
refer to a situation anaphoricly described
There’s always a lot of noise in the evening. It annoys me.
refer to a process
We have to write long essays every week. It’s difficult.
refer to a fact
The bank won’t allow me a credit. It’s a problem.
refer to the subject and object of the clause
It’s obvious that they didn’t understand. extra-posed subject
They found it difficult to understand. extra-posed object
Personal pronoun functions alone as subject complement:
It’s me. general usage
ADJECTIVES
· Denote features, qualities, relationships, classes to items which are related to noun
Reference:
to state (lonely x loneliness, happy x happiness)
to qualities (nice, lovely, ugly)
to features resulting from processes (increasing, confused)
to emotional attitudes (hateful, likeable)
to evaluation (true, false, sufficient)
to features of space (northern, southern, continental)
to features of time (modern, ancient, contemporary)
to specifications (main, certain, subsidiary)
to classes (African, electric light, literary class)
Types in term of internal structure:
simple
original; often monosyllabic (nice, good, bad, ugly, quick)
derived
by suffixes able (readable, eatable)
o ible come from the verb
o ish (childish)
o ous (dangerous, mountainous)
o al (technical, legal)
o ic (heroic)
o ful (beautiful)
o less (useless)
o y (silly)
o some (handsome, fulsome)
o ant
o ive (talkative)
o most (uppermost)
o ® they have origin in other word classes
by prefixes
o a (alive, awake, alone, asleep)
o from nouns and very often from verbs, can be used only predicatively, follow be
participial
forms of the verbs -ing, -ed (interested audience, interesting book)
are converted and become adjectives
pseudo-participial
look like participles use -ing and -ed (gifted, enterprising, stilled, detailed)
compoundalways spelled with hyphen (ready-made, age-old, well-
Reference:
to state (lonely x loneliness, happy x happiness)
to qualities (nice, lovely, ugly)
to features resulting from processes (increasing, confused)
to emotional attitudes (hateful, likeable)
to evaluation (true, false, sufficient)
to features of space (northern, southern, continental)
to features of time (modern, ancient, contemporary)
to specifications (main, certain, subsidiary)
to classes (African, electric light, literary class)
Types in term of internal structure:
simple
original; often monosyllabic (nice, good, bad, ugly, quick)
derived
by suffixes able (readable, eatable)
o ible come from the verb
o ish (childish)
o ous (dangerous, mountainous)
o al (technical, legal)
o ic (heroic)
o ful (beautiful)
o less (useless)
o y (silly)
o some (handsome, fulsome)
o ant
o ive (talkative)
o most (uppermost)
o ® they have origin in other word classes
by prefixes
o a (alive, awake, alone, asleep)
o from nouns and very often from verbs, can be used only predicatively, follow be
participial
forms of the verbs -ing, -ed (interested audience, interesting book)
are converted and become adjectives
pseudo-participial
look like participles use -ing and -ed (gifted, enterprising, stilled, detailed)
compoundalways spelled with hyphen (ready-made, age-old, well-
Different classes of pronouns
§ Important because of different functions and categories
§ Classification is different in different grammars
§ All the classes are closed classes = they contain final set of elements (thou, thee as the 2nd person disappeared)
Personal
subjective (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)
objective (me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them)
Possessive
attributive
o stand as determiner in front of the noun (my, your, his, her, its, our, their)
nominal / independent
o (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs)
Reflexive
(myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves)
function
o coreferential
o emphasize
Reciprocal
each – other
o usually expresses relationship between two entities
one – another
o usually expresses relationship among more entities
Demonstrative
this – these
o implies nearness
that – those
o implies distance (special, psychological, in time)
o ® may be relative
Interrogative
(who, whose, whom, what, which)
where, when, why are adverbs
Relative
(who, whose, whom, what, which, that)
o conjunctive elements joining relative clause with another clause
Indefinite
universal
o (every, everyone, everybody, everything, each, all, both, enough by some grammars)
partitive
o assertive
(some, someone, somebody, something, either)
§ used in positive declarative sentences
o non-assertive (any, anyone, anybody, anything, either)
§ used in negative interrogative sentences
o negative
(no, no-one, nobody, nothing, none, neither)
Quantifying
multual
o indicate large quantities (many, much, more, most)
paucal
o indicate small quantities (little, few, less, least, fewer, fewest, several)
Substitutive
(one, ones, that, those, each, some)
o one head of the nominal group with pre-modification
o that head of the nominal group with post-modification
o each Give the boys an apple each.
o some You have so many apples. Can you give me some?
Generic
§ refer to the whole class of people (one, you, we, they)
one highly formal
you most common
(You can’t go to the party when you must write an essay. - Člověk nemůže jít na večírek…)
we more subjective attitude, the speaker is included
(We can’t smoke here.)
they implies distance
(They increase the taxes again.)
§ Classification is different in different grammars
§ All the classes are closed classes = they contain final set of elements (thou, thee as the 2nd person disappeared)
Personal
subjective (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)
objective (me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them)
Possessive
attributive
o stand as determiner in front of the noun (my, your, his, her, its, our, their)
nominal / independent
o (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs)
Reflexive
(myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves)
function
o coreferential
o emphasize
Reciprocal
each – other
o usually expresses relationship between two entities
one – another
o usually expresses relationship among more entities
Demonstrative
this – these
o implies nearness
that – those
o implies distance (special, psychological, in time)
o ® may be relative
Interrogative
(who, whose, whom, what, which)
where, when, why are adverbs
Relative
(who, whose, whom, what, which, that)
o conjunctive elements joining relative clause with another clause
Indefinite
universal
o (every, everyone, everybody, everything, each, all, both, enough by some grammars)
partitive
o assertive
(some, someone, somebody, something, either)
§ used in positive declarative sentences
o non-assertive (any, anyone, anybody, anything, either)
§ used in negative interrogative sentences
o negative
(no, no-one, nobody, nothing, none, neither)
Quantifying
multual
o indicate large quantities (many, much, more, most)
paucal
o indicate small quantities (little, few, less, least, fewer, fewest, several)
Substitutive
(one, ones, that, those, each, some)
o one head of the nominal group with pre-modification
o that head of the nominal group with post-modification
o each Give the boys an apple each.
o some You have so many apples. Can you give me some?
Generic
§ refer to the whole class of people (one, you, we, they)
one highly formal
you most common
(You can’t go to the party when you must write an essay. - Člověk nemůže jít na večírek…)
we more subjective attitude, the speaker is included
(We can’t smoke here.)
they implies distance
(They increase the taxes again.)
Pronouns are heterogeneous in grammatical cathegories
Case
relates only to personal pronouns
we distinguish subjective case (I, you, he)
objective case (me, him)
subjective (somebody, someone, one)
genitive (somebody’s, someone’s, one’s)
Gender
possessive, personal, reflexive, sometimes interrogative, relative pronouns
o masculine
o feminine with 3rd person
o neuter
o animate (who)
o inanimate (what, which)
Person
relative pronouns
o 1st speaker (I)
o 2nd addressee (you)
o 3rd content, topic of the conversation (he, she, it)
Number
singular (I, you, he, she, it, myself)
plural (we, you, they, ourselves)
o in reflexive pronouns double plural ourselves
relates only to personal pronouns
we distinguish subjective case (I, you, he)
objective case (me, him)
subjective (somebody, someone, one)
genitive (somebody’s, someone’s, one’s)
Gender
possessive, personal, reflexive, sometimes interrogative, relative pronouns
o masculine
o feminine with 3rd person
o neuter
o animate (who)
o inanimate (what, which)
Person
relative pronouns
o 1st speaker (I)
o 2nd addressee (you)
o 3rd content, topic of the conversation (he, she, it)
Number
singular (I, you, he, she, it, myself)
plural (we, you, they, ourselves)
o in reflexive pronouns double plural ourselves
NUMERALS
§ express exact quantities
§ if followed by noun ® determiner of nominal group
§ 2 subclasses
o cardinal
o ordinal
Lexical morphology of numerals:
cardinal
§ 1 – 12 separate items
§ 12 – 19, 20, 30… constructed by derivation
§ 21, 22… compounding ® we put a hyphen
§ coordination sometimes by and
ordinal
§ derivation by suffix –th
§ higher ordinal numerals
o in English derivation only at the end (-th)
o in Czech everything is derived
§ 1st, 2nd, 3rd are exception
§ other numeric expressions are created by combination of cardinal and ordinal numerals
§ ® fractions, multiplications, divisions, powers, roots
§ if followed by noun ® determiner of nominal group
§ 2 subclasses
o cardinal
o ordinal
Lexical morphology of numerals:
cardinal
§ 1 – 12 separate items
§ 12 – 19, 20, 30… constructed by derivation
§ 21, 22… compounding ® we put a hyphen
§ coordination sometimes by and
ordinal
§ derivation by suffix –th
§ higher ordinal numerals
o in English derivation only at the end (-th)
o in Czech everything is derived
§ 1st, 2nd, 3rd are exception
§ other numeric expressions are created by combination of cardinal and ordinal numerals
§ ® fractions, multiplications, divisions, powers, roots
PRONOUNS
§ Similar to nouns, can have similar function
§ Highly heterogeneous word class where the individual members differ in forms, functions and ways they refer to
§ Pronomen = standing instead of noun
Different functions of pronouns:
Substitute for a noun-phrase (nominal group)
Who lent you the book? Who represents the noun-phrase
What are you eating? I am eating an apple.
Somebody has taken my umbrella. Somebody refers to a person who has taken an umbrella
Refer to an entity, which is given in the linguistic or situational context
My friend Peter is not coming. He is ill. linguistic context
Pronouns don’t refer to one entity like nouns but to different entities
Substitute for the head of a noun-phrase in the linguistic unit
I need some envelopes. Have you got any large white ones?
The appearance of brick is better than that of other building materials.
Stand for a general concept
Everyone should speak at least two foreign languages. (all people)
Everything is as it should be. (all things involved in particular situation)
One never knows. (a man)
Express semantic and syntactic relationship
Our teacher (relationship between teacher and group of people)
The book which I am reading.
Some pronouns are coreferential (=identical) with the subject of the clause
The children enjoyed themselves. (children and themselves are the same entity)
Some pronouns reinforce the entity referred to by a noun or pronoun
He himself wrote it. emphasizing he and anyone else
He wrote it himself. Without help of anybody else
Determiners in the noun-phrase (nominal group)
That green plant definite determination
Some new ideas indefinite determination
My uncle definite determination + semantic relationship
Diectic (they point to entity in space or time)
That is the key I was looking for.
Who is walking around in the attic? It’s father looking for some old books.
Used for both objects and persons
§ Highly heterogeneous word class where the individual members differ in forms, functions and ways they refer to
§ Pronomen = standing instead of noun
Different functions of pronouns:
Substitute for a noun-phrase (nominal group)
Who lent you the book? Who represents the noun-phrase
What are you eating? I am eating an apple.
Somebody has taken my umbrella. Somebody refers to a person who has taken an umbrella
Refer to an entity, which is given in the linguistic or situational context
My friend Peter is not coming. He is ill. linguistic context
Pronouns don’t refer to one entity like nouns but to different entities
Substitute for the head of a noun-phrase in the linguistic unit
I need some envelopes. Have you got any large white ones?
The appearance of brick is better than that of other building materials.
Stand for a general concept
Everyone should speak at least two foreign languages. (all people)
Everything is as it should be. (all things involved in particular situation)
One never knows. (a man)
Express semantic and syntactic relationship
Our teacher (relationship between teacher and group of people)
The book which I am reading.
Some pronouns are coreferential (=identical) with the subject of the clause
The children enjoyed themselves. (children and themselves are the same entity)
Some pronouns reinforce the entity referred to by a noun or pronoun
He himself wrote it. emphasizing he and anyone else
He wrote it himself. Without help of anybody else
Determiners in the noun-phrase (nominal group)
That green plant definite determination
Some new ideas indefinite determination
My uncle definite determination + semantic relationship
Diectic (they point to entity in space or time)
That is the key I was looking for.
Who is walking around in the attic? It’s father looking for some old books.
Used for both objects and persons
Case
1. The of genitive as an alternative
With inanimates (with some exceptions)
Sometimes with animates to distinguish between subjective and objective use
His wife’s loss (his wife lost something)
The loss of his wife (he lost his wife)
Pragmatically caused by sentence structure
The grandmother of a girl in my class has died
2. Semantic types of the of genitive
Possessive are excluded of this genitive
Subjective the acquisition of knowledge
Objective the purpose of the task
Specifying the analysis of the text
Classifying word of French origin
Qualifying the humming of a bee
Partitive a class of small children
a glass of milk
a whole library of books
Descriptive a man of ambition
a woman of great beauty
Adverbial to consist of ten chapters
Causal to die of hunger
Oppositional the village of Corleone
the fool if her husband
Origin the products of the company
Content to speak of love
The legend of King Arthur
3. The grammatical function of the of genitive
It can be qualifier in the nominal group
It can never be a determiner in the nominal group
It can be prepositional object to think of one’s family
It can be predicator complement the structure consists of two parts
With inanimates (with some exceptions)
Sometimes with animates to distinguish between subjective and objective use
His wife’s loss (his wife lost something)
The loss of his wife (he lost his wife)
Pragmatically caused by sentence structure
The grandmother of a girl in my class has died
2. Semantic types of the of genitive
Possessive are excluded of this genitive
Subjective the acquisition of knowledge
Objective the purpose of the task
Specifying the analysis of the text
Classifying word of French origin
Qualifying the humming of a bee
Partitive a class of small children
a glass of milk
a whole library of books
Descriptive a man of ambition
a woman of great beauty
Adverbial to consist of ten chapters
Causal to die of hunger
Oppositional the village of Corleone
the fool if her husband
Origin the products of the company
Content to speak of love
The legend of King Arthur
3. The grammatical function of the of genitive
It can be qualifier in the nominal group
It can never be a determiner in the nominal group
It can be prepositional object to think of one’s family
It can be predicator complement the structure consists of two parts
Gender distinction
1. Male and female counterparts only to personal and higher animate nouns
brother x sister stallion x mare
mother x father dog x bitch
® named by separate lexical item
These usually have dual-gender (hyperonym) man x woman ® person
boy x girl ® child
father x mother ® parent
stallion x mare ® horse
dog x bitch ® dog
brother x sister ® sibling
son x daughter ® offspring
2. Personal counterparts morphologically marked
hero x heroin usher x usherette
waiter x waitress actor x actress
s, ed, in adopted from French
Usually it’s the feminine gender which is marked widow x widower
bride x bridegroom
3. Personal and higher animal counterparts morphologically unmarked but contain distinctive elements
of compounds
policeman x policewoman billy-goat x goat
tom cat x pussy cat boyfriend x girlfriend
gentleman doctor x lady doctor
Also used when people mean that it’s necessary to make clear who you are talking about when you call about
dual-gender nouns
In these days forms with compounds are considered as discrimination so it’s replaced by hyperonym
chairman x chairwoman ® chairperson
Þ part of political correctness in language
4. Personification
Dealing inanimates as they would be animate ® we refer to objects as he and she
Expresses emotional and personal attitude
It occurs with: machines, ships, cars ® she
natural phenomena (son, moon) ® grammatical gender derived from Latin, usually in
poetry
abstractions with positive connotations (liberty, virtue) ® she
abstractions with negative connotations (death, despair, anger) ® he
brother x sister stallion x mare
mother x father dog x bitch
® named by separate lexical item
These usually have dual-gender (hyperonym) man x woman ® person
boy x girl ® child
father x mother ® parent
stallion x mare ® horse
dog x bitch ® dog
brother x sister ® sibling
son x daughter ® offspring
2. Personal counterparts morphologically marked
hero x heroin usher x usherette
waiter x waitress actor x actress
s, ed, in adopted from French
Usually it’s the feminine gender which is marked widow x widower
bride x bridegroom
3. Personal and higher animal counterparts morphologically unmarked but contain distinctive elements
of compounds
policeman x policewoman billy-goat x goat
tom cat x pussy cat boyfriend x girlfriend
gentleman doctor x lady doctor
Also used when people mean that it’s necessary to make clear who you are talking about when you call about
dual-gender nouns
In these days forms with compounds are considered as discrimination so it’s replaced by hyperonym
chairman x chairwoman ® chairperson
Þ part of political correctness in language
4. Personification
Dealing inanimates as they would be animate ® we refer to objects as he and she
Expresses emotional and personal attitude
It occurs with: machines, ships, cars ® she
natural phenomena (son, moon) ® grammatical gender derived from Latin, usually in
poetry
abstractions with positive connotations (liberty, virtue) ® she
abstractions with negative connotations (death, despair, anger) ® he
CASE
- The function is to represent relationships between nouns in sentence ® reflected in use of prepositions and by structure if the sentence
- Semantic category
- The only relic from past times (when English was more difficult) is the genitive ‘s
1. The distribution of the ‘s genitive relation to noun classes
Used with personal animate nouns, those who have reference to human features
Sometimes with low animal nouns
With inanimate – geographical, temporal nouns, locative nouns, special reference to human feature (mind, hair)
Duty and love may be signs of personification or refer to human beings
2. Semantic types of ‘s genitive
Possessive Mr. Johnson’s car
Subjective student’s application
Objective the family’s support, team’s defeat
Specifying the girl’s face
Classifying children’s clothes
Descriptive a summer’s day
Attributive the hero’s courage
Origin Byron’s poetry
Source cow’s milk
Temporal today’s work
Measure an hour’s discussion
Relational John’s train
3. Structural variant of the ‘s genitive (special use of ‘s genitive)
The independent genitive My car is faster than John’s
The local genitive Let’s meet at bill’s
The double genitive Jim’s friend – a friend of Jim’s
That dog of my neighbour’s has bitten me again
4. The grammatical functions of the ‘s genitive
Determiner (definite) in the nominal group my daughter’s new teacher
Modifier in the nominal group He wants to be a ship’s doctor
Qualifier in the nominal group a patient of Dr. Brown’s
- Genitive can be made with preposition of
- ‘s and of genitive are not equal
- Semantic category
- The only relic from past times (when English was more difficult) is the genitive ‘s
1. The distribution of the ‘s genitive relation to noun classes
Used with personal animate nouns, those who have reference to human features
Sometimes with low animal nouns
With inanimate – geographical, temporal nouns, locative nouns, special reference to human feature (mind, hair)
Duty and love may be signs of personification or refer to human beings
2. Semantic types of ‘s genitive
Possessive Mr. Johnson’s car
Subjective student’s application
Objective the family’s support, team’s defeat
Specifying the girl’s face
Classifying children’s clothes
Descriptive a summer’s day
Attributive the hero’s courage
Origin Byron’s poetry
Source cow’s milk
Temporal today’s work
Measure an hour’s discussion
Relational John’s train
3. Structural variant of the ‘s genitive (special use of ‘s genitive)
The independent genitive My car is faster than John’s
The local genitive Let’s meet at bill’s
The double genitive Jim’s friend – a friend of Jim’s
That dog of my neighbour’s has bitten me again
4. The grammatical functions of the ‘s genitive
Determiner (definite) in the nominal group my daughter’s new teacher
Modifier in the nominal group He wants to be a ship’s doctor
Qualifier in the nominal group a patient of Dr. Brown’s
- Genitive can be made with preposition of
- ‘s and of genitive are not equal
GENDER
- semantic category
- different from the Czech language (English nouns and adjectives don’t have it)
- covered grammatical category ® we recognize male, female and neutral only by pronouns (he, she, it)
- distinguish: 3rd person singular personal pronouns (he, she, it)
3rd person singular possessive pronouns (his, her, its)
3rd person singular reflexive pronouns (himself, herself, itself)
- interrogative and relative pronouns animate (who, whom, whose)
inanimate (what, which)
Semantico-grammatical classification:
· Animate personal male (semantic) x masculine (grammatical)
female x feminine
dual x masculine or feminine (friend, teacher, parent)
– we have to know from the context
common – can be either masculine, feminine of neuter (child, infant)
collective – neuter, singular or plural (committee, family, board)
non-personal higher animals x masculine, feminine or neuter
lower animals x neuter (bee, fly, mouse)
· Inanimate always neuter
- different from the Czech language (English nouns and adjectives don’t have it)
- covered grammatical category ® we recognize male, female and neutral only by pronouns (he, she, it)
- distinguish: 3rd person singular personal pronouns (he, she, it)
3rd person singular possessive pronouns (his, her, its)
3rd person singular reflexive pronouns (himself, herself, itself)
- interrogative and relative pronouns animate (who, whom, whose)
inanimate (what, which)
Semantico-grammatical classification:
· Animate personal male (semantic) x masculine (grammatical)
female x feminine
dual x masculine or feminine (friend, teacher, parent)
– we have to know from the context
common – can be either masculine, feminine of neuter (child, infant)
collective – neuter, singular or plural (committee, family, board)
non-personal higher animals x masculine, feminine or neuter
lower animals x neuter (bee, fly, mouse)
· Inanimate always neuter
Identification
· Identification:
endophoric within the linguistic context
anaphoric referent occurred earlier
There is a large building right opposite you.
The building used to be a school.
The school has now been abolished.
The school / it has been changed to a museum.
cataphoric referent of the noun is identified later, immediately after the noun
the bus coming now
the journey home
the ministry of Education
the book which you lend me
exophoric outside identification from the text, situational context
come to the blackboard
open the bottle (there is one bottle on the table)
from general knowledge – unique
the sun, the moon, the earth, the universe, the sky, the seaside, the President, the Government
endophoric within the linguistic context
anaphoric referent occurred earlier
There is a large building right opposite you.
The building used to be a school.
The school has now been abolished.
The school / it has been changed to a museum.
cataphoric referent of the noun is identified later, immediately after the noun
the bus coming now
the journey home
the ministry of Education
the book which you lend me
exophoric outside identification from the text, situational context
come to the blackboard
open the bottle (there is one bottle on the table)
from general knowledge – unique
the sun, the moon, the earth, the universe, the sky, the seaside, the President, the Government
Types of nominal groups
indefinite common nouns
specific x non-specific
Can be: count, singular, indefinite, specific I have bought a new car
count, singular, indefinite, non-specific I need a new car
Þ we can distinguish because of the verb
count, plural, indefinite, specific I have got some friends in the UK
Þ some is used rather than 0 article
count, plural, indefinite, non-specific I have got friends in the UK
Þ they aren’t really friends
mass, plural, indefinite, non-specific We have brought some food
Þ some items to eat
mass, plural, indefinite, non-specific We can’t go without food
Þ food in general
Indefinite proper nouns:
Refer to the unique entity (months, days)
Is there a John Smith in this class? Þ indefinite person
I was born on a Monday.
We had a very hot June last year.
Metonyms: I have got a Goya at home. Þ painting from him
Definite common nouns:
Implies already specific
- If a common noun represents unique social role as a subject ® the definiteness is with 0 article
He soon became director of the company.
- Common complements in minor clauses followed by when, which, if, although
While Minister, he introduced many useful reforms.
Definite proper nouns:
Are by nature already definite
The John Smith who is in my class. Þ there is more than one John Smith
The Sunday that we met.
The Christmas of last year.
Generic nouns:
Used in statements which one entity represents the whole class of entities
a / an + singular count noun An elephant never forgets.
the + singular count noun The elephant never forgets.
Þ singular form represents the whole class collection of all the possible elephant
on the world
0 + plural count noun. Elephants never forget
Þ all members posses the same quality
0 + mass count Science proceeds at a rapid pace.
specific x non-specific
Can be: count, singular, indefinite, specific I have bought a new car
count, singular, indefinite, non-specific I need a new car
Þ we can distinguish because of the verb
count, plural, indefinite, specific I have got some friends in the UK
Þ some is used rather than 0 article
count, plural, indefinite, non-specific I have got friends in the UK
Þ they aren’t really friends
mass, plural, indefinite, non-specific We have brought some food
Þ some items to eat
mass, plural, indefinite, non-specific We can’t go without food
Þ food in general
Indefinite proper nouns:
Refer to the unique entity (months, days)
Is there a John Smith in this class? Þ indefinite person
I was born on a Monday.
We had a very hot June last year.
Metonyms: I have got a Goya at home. Þ painting from him
Definite common nouns:
Implies already specific
- If a common noun represents unique social role as a subject ® the definiteness is with 0 article
He soon became director of the company.
- Common complements in minor clauses followed by when, which, if, although
While Minister, he introduced many useful reforms.
Definite proper nouns:
Are by nature already definite
The John Smith who is in my class. Þ there is more than one John Smith
The Sunday that we met.
The Christmas of last year.
Generic nouns:
Used in statements which one entity represents the whole class of entities
a / an + singular count noun An elephant never forgets.
the + singular count noun The elephant never forgets.
Þ singular form represents the whole class collection of all the possible elephant
on the world
0 + plural count noun. Elephants never forget
Þ all members posses the same quality
0 + mass count Science proceeds at a rapid pace.
DETERMINATION AND DEFINITENESS
- Definite x indefinite
- We don’t have it in Czech language
- Distinction isn’t obligatory
· Types of selection:
deictic demonstrative pronouns (these, those)
genitive possessive pronouns and genitives (my, her, whose, Tom’s)
distributive (all, both, each, every, some, any, no)
specifying wh pronouns (what, which, whatever); followed by a noun
quantifying all numerals (three books, the first, half, many, much, little, few)
adjectival by adjectives (such, some, other, whole, certain, only, an – on the border line)
partitive of is often obligatory
some of our students – we select from already selected pair
quantifying (half of our students)
nominal (a crowd of people)
with half, both, all of is optional
Analysis of nominal:
A determiner
whole modifier determiner
library head
of
books qualifier head
· Types od definition:
definite
indefinite
generic
- subsystem of determination selection and definition go together
Þ determiners of nominal group
· Selection and definition:
- contains already determiners, some determiners imply
my book - determiners automatically (this, that, my, Tom’s, both, each, every, which)
- other need to combine other determiners to indicate definiteness
all the students, both the books, the three boys, the many, the few, the little, the other, the whole
- some imply indefiniteness
some, any, no, what, whatever, three, four, much, many, few, little
- determiner + indefinite article
a half, a few, a little, a whole, a certain, a great deal
· Definite, indefinite and zero article:
- if nominal group contains no other determiner then definiteness is indicated by definiteness of article (a, the, 0)
- We don’t have it in Czech language
- Distinction isn’t obligatory
· Types of selection:
deictic demonstrative pronouns (these, those)
genitive possessive pronouns and genitives (my, her, whose, Tom’s)
distributive (all, both, each, every, some, any, no)
specifying wh pronouns (what, which, whatever); followed by a noun
quantifying all numerals (three books, the first, half, many, much, little, few)
adjectival by adjectives (such, some, other, whole, certain, only, an – on the border line)
partitive of is often obligatory
some of our students – we select from already selected pair
quantifying (half of our students)
nominal (a crowd of people)
with half, both, all of is optional
Analysis of nominal:
A determiner
whole modifier determiner
library head
of
books qualifier head
· Types od definition:
definite
indefinite
generic
- subsystem of determination selection and definition go together
Þ determiners of nominal group
· Selection and definition:
- contains already determiners, some determiners imply
my book - determiners automatically (this, that, my, Tom’s, both, each, every, which)
- other need to combine other determiners to indicate definiteness
all the students, both the books, the three boys, the many, the few, the little, the other, the whole
- some imply indefiniteness
some, any, no, what, whatever, three, four, much, many, few, little
- determiner + indefinite article
a half, a few, a little, a whole, a certain, a great deal
· Definite, indefinite and zero article:
- if nominal group contains no other determiner then definiteness is indicated by definiteness of article (a, the, 0)
Markers of plurality
Markers of plurality:
§ Productive markers – s, es, (i)es
§ Unproductive markers – s ending accompanied by change in the noun
-s with change of voiceless to voiced consonant
· only change in spelling - lives, shelves, calves, elves
· change in pronunciation – houses, youths, mouths
· exception – beliefs, chiefs, cliffs, gulfs, proofs, roofs
· alternative forms – scarfs – scarves, hoofs – hooves
nouns changing in base vowel
men, women, mice, lice, teeth, feet, geese
–en (-r + en) – historical endings
oxen, children, brethren
zero marker
council, craft, sheep, Japanese
· measures – stone, dozen, mile (two-mile walk, ten-minute break, two-pound note)
Plurals of compounds:
not contain a noun ® plural at the end
forget-me-nots, take-offs
contain one noun ® plural comes with the noun
passers-by
contain two nouns ® plural comes with the head noun
sons-in-law, men-of-war
contain two nouns the first is modifier ® plural comes with the second one (boyfriends)
the first is man or woman ® plural comes with both (menservants, womendoctors)
the first is man or woman but it isn’t modifier ® plural comes with the second one
(woman haters)
Foreign plurals:
§ Adopted together with their original plural forms
Latin
curriculum – curricula
fungus – fungi
medium – media
stimulus – stimuli
lava - lave
Greek
analysis – analyses
basis – bases
thesis – theses
criterion – criteria
phenomenon - phenomena
French
chateaux – plural is the same only pronounced with –s
plateau
§ Productive markers – s, es, (i)es
§ Unproductive markers – s ending accompanied by change in the noun
-s with change of voiceless to voiced consonant
· only change in spelling - lives, shelves, calves, elves
· change in pronunciation – houses, youths, mouths
· exception – beliefs, chiefs, cliffs, gulfs, proofs, roofs
· alternative forms – scarfs – scarves, hoofs – hooves
nouns changing in base vowel
men, women, mice, lice, teeth, feet, geese
–en (-r + en) – historical endings
oxen, children, brethren
zero marker
council, craft, sheep, Japanese
· measures – stone, dozen, mile (two-mile walk, ten-minute break, two-pound note)
Plurals of compounds:
not contain a noun ® plural at the end
forget-me-nots, take-offs
contain one noun ® plural comes with the noun
passers-by
contain two nouns ® plural comes with the head noun
sons-in-law, men-of-war
contain two nouns the first is modifier ® plural comes with the second one (boyfriends)
the first is man or woman ® plural comes with both (menservants, womendoctors)
the first is man or woman but it isn’t modifier ® plural comes with the second one
(woman haters)
Foreign plurals:
§ Adopted together with their original plural forms
Latin
curriculum – curricula
fungus – fungi
medium – media
stimulus – stimuli
lava - lave
Greek
analysis – analyses
basis – bases
thesis – theses
criterion – criteria
phenomenon - phenomena
French
chateaux – plural is the same only pronounced with –s
plateau
COUNTABILITY AND THE GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF NUMBER
Countability:
§ Refers to entities which can be counted or not
§ Distinction of countability and uncountability is related to the context and intention of the speaker
Countability markers:
§ Related to determination
§ Related to singular or plural of the verb
§ Contrast between using a/an with singular or zero determiner with singular
a good knowledge - knowledge
§ Using of every/each with singular or all with singular
each / every book – all happiness, all mathematics
§ Use of many/few with plural or much/little with singular
many / few students – much / little bread
§ If there is or isn’t number contrast in the form of the noun
student ® students – logic ® 0
§ Singular or plural concord or only singular concord with the verb
student is / students are – happiness is
Degrees of countability:
Fully mass – some occasionally with a/an
§ Predominantly used as uncountable
denoting activities – walking, speaking, meaning
abstractions – happiness, sincerity
luggage, information, news
sciences – physics, mathematics, logic, arithmetic
§ Some occasionally with a/an if they are specified by pre-/post-modifier
a good knowledge, a pride like his, a courage like hers, a piece of luggage, news item
§ They may also appear in other degrees but this is the most important
Fully mass – some occasionally with a/an or in plural form
phenomena of water – rain, snow, fog, frost
materials as foodstuff – water, wine, cheese
money, literature, help
states of human body – hunger, thirst
§ If they are used in plural they change their meaning
cheese – substance x cheeses – different kinds of cheese
snow – general phenomenon x snows – repetition in appearance, intensity, amount
§ They cannot take numeratives (numbers)
§ Singular with a/an – there must be a modifier
a huge hunger, a deep sleep
Fully mass and fully count
§ Changes meaning
· states of human mind
need, doubt
painting, writing – C meaning product x U meaning activity
business – C meaning company x U meaning kind of human activity
success, failure – as individual instances they are countable
· animal names
hake, salmon, deer – C meaning individuals x U meaning classes of animals
skittles, darts, bowls – C figures that you use x U games
Partially count and never mass
§ They cannot be used with singular concord verb
§ It is always a group of something or somebody
· noun from adjective
the rich, the poor, the famous
· nations
the English, the French, people (lidé – partially C x národ – fully C)
· collectives for animals
cattle, police, riches, goods, surroundings, outskirts, belongings, trousers, scissors, pliers, spectacles
· by the form they indicate they can be only used in plural
door – singular when it consists of one wing x plural when they consist of two wings
Fully count except number contrast in form, never mass
§ One form in singular and also in plural
sheep
aircraft, spacecraft
gallons, barracks, headquarters
means, offspring, series, species
Fully count and some occasionally mass
house, book
detail, advantage
§ when used with preposition they are uncountable
· method of travelling
by ship, by car, by plane
· institutions
at school, at home, in hospital
· abstractions
in detail
· means of communication
by letter, by telegram
Grammatical category of the number:
§ Singular form – unmarked (noun itself)
§ Plural form – marked
§ Refers to entities which can be counted or not
§ Distinction of countability and uncountability is related to the context and intention of the speaker
Countability markers:
§ Related to determination
§ Related to singular or plural of the verb
§ Contrast between using a/an with singular or zero determiner with singular
a good knowledge - knowledge
§ Using of every/each with singular or all with singular
each / every book – all happiness, all mathematics
§ Use of many/few with plural or much/little with singular
many / few students – much / little bread
§ If there is or isn’t number contrast in the form of the noun
student ® students – logic ® 0
§ Singular or plural concord or only singular concord with the verb
student is / students are – happiness is
Degrees of countability:
Fully mass – some occasionally with a/an
§ Predominantly used as uncountable
denoting activities – walking, speaking, meaning
abstractions – happiness, sincerity
luggage, information, news
sciences – physics, mathematics, logic, arithmetic
§ Some occasionally with a/an if they are specified by pre-/post-modifier
a good knowledge, a pride like his, a courage like hers, a piece of luggage, news item
§ They may also appear in other degrees but this is the most important
Fully mass – some occasionally with a/an or in plural form
phenomena of water – rain, snow, fog, frost
materials as foodstuff – water, wine, cheese
money, literature, help
states of human body – hunger, thirst
§ If they are used in plural they change their meaning
cheese – substance x cheeses – different kinds of cheese
snow – general phenomenon x snows – repetition in appearance, intensity, amount
§ They cannot take numeratives (numbers)
§ Singular with a/an – there must be a modifier
a huge hunger, a deep sleep
Fully mass and fully count
§ Changes meaning
· states of human mind
need, doubt
painting, writing – C meaning product x U meaning activity
business – C meaning company x U meaning kind of human activity
success, failure – as individual instances they are countable
· animal names
hake, salmon, deer – C meaning individuals x U meaning classes of animals
skittles, darts, bowls – C figures that you use x U games
Partially count and never mass
§ They cannot be used with singular concord verb
§ It is always a group of something or somebody
· noun from adjective
the rich, the poor, the famous
· nations
the English, the French, people (lidé – partially C x národ – fully C)
· collectives for animals
cattle, police, riches, goods, surroundings, outskirts, belongings, trousers, scissors, pliers, spectacles
· by the form they indicate they can be only used in plural
door – singular when it consists of one wing x plural when they consist of two wings
Fully count except number contrast in form, never mass
§ One form in singular and also in plural
sheep
aircraft, spacecraft
gallons, barracks, headquarters
means, offspring, series, species
Fully count and some occasionally mass
house, book
detail, advantage
§ when used with preposition they are uncountable
· method of travelling
by ship, by car, by plane
· institutions
at school, at home, in hospital
· abstractions
in detail
· means of communication
by letter, by telegram
Grammatical category of the number:
§ Singular form – unmarked (noun itself)
§ Plural form – marked
Nouns-Structure of nominal groups / noun phrases
Nominal groups vary
§ in the types of ‘things’ they refer to
§ in the experimental information encoded in their elements
§ in the number of these elements
§ in the classes of formal items that realize them
§ in the vast range of lexical items that expound them
Pre-Head – Head – Post-Head
Pre-Head
o determiner
§ defining (articles)
§ genitive (possessive pronouns – my)
§ deictic (tell about the distance – this, that)
§ distributive (all, both)
§ quantifying (a kilo)
§ partitive (make a selection – three of the boys)
o modifier
§ epithetal (ugly, beautiful)
· subjective
· objective
§ classifying (puts words in classes – European art)
Head
§ nominal
§ pronominal
(the head is a pronoun – I read it yesterday)
Post-Head
§ qualifier
· (also modifies the noun; sometimes called post-modifier)
§ extensive attribute
· nominal (Marco Polo, the explorer)
· circumstantial (the way out)
· attributive (nothing important)
· situational (the book which you lent me)
§ in the types of ‘things’ they refer to
§ in the experimental information encoded in their elements
§ in the number of these elements
§ in the classes of formal items that realize them
§ in the vast range of lexical items that expound them
Pre-Head – Head – Post-Head
Pre-Head
o determiner
§ defining (articles)
§ genitive (possessive pronouns – my)
§ deictic (tell about the distance – this, that)
§ distributive (all, both)
§ quantifying (a kilo)
§ partitive (make a selection – three of the boys)
o modifier
§ epithetal (ugly, beautiful)
· subjective
· objective
§ classifying (puts words in classes – European art)
Head
§ nominal
§ pronominal
(the head is a pronoun – I read it yesterday)
Post-Head
§ qualifier
· (also modifies the noun; sometimes called post-modifier)
§ extensive attribute
· nominal (Marco Polo, the explorer)
· circumstantial (the way out)
· attributive (nothing important)
· situational (the book which you lent me)
Nouns- Syntactic functions of a noun
At group level
§ modifier in a nominal group (school garden)
§ qualifier in a nominal group (Mr. Brown, our teacher)
§ completive in a prepositional group (over the fence)
At clause level
§ subject (the boy ran away)
§ direct object (we saw the boy)
§ indirect object (she gave the boy a sweet)
§ adjunct (příslovečné určení)
§ subject complement (jmenná část přísudku – he is just a boy)
§ object complement (doplněk – they considered him a genius)
§ predicator complement (it lasted two weeks)
§ modifier in a nominal group (school garden)
§ qualifier in a nominal group (Mr. Brown, our teacher)
§ completive in a prepositional group (over the fence)
At clause level
§ subject (the boy ran away)
§ direct object (we saw the boy)
§ indirect object (she gave the boy a sweet)
§ adjunct (příslovečné určení)
§ subject complement (jmenná část přísudku – he is just a boy)
§ object complement (doplněk – they considered him a genius)
§ predicator complement (it lasted two weeks)
NOUNS
Reference:
§ Nouns refer semantically to those aspects of our experience which we perceive as things or entities
§ Entities
o persons
o animals
o things (concrete entities)
o places
o institutions
o emotions (anger, excitement)
o periods of time
o materials
o actions (reading, laughter)
o qualities (beauty, speed)
o contents of perception
o phenomena (thunder, success, noise, traffic)
o relationships (friendship, obedience)
o abstractions (thought, experience)
o collectives (throngs)
o instruments (drains)
§ Differences between nouns are referred as classes
Boy differs from horse and both differs from stable
§ Nouns refer semantically to those aspects of our experience which we perceive as things or entities
§ Entities
o persons
o animals
o things (concrete entities)
o places
o institutions
o emotions (anger, excitement)
o periods of time
o materials
o actions (reading, laughter)
o qualities (beauty, speed)
o contents of perception
o phenomena (thunder, success, noise, traffic)
o relationships (friendship, obedience)
o abstractions (thought, experience)
o collectives (throngs)
o instruments (drains)
§ Differences between nouns are referred as classes
Boy differs from horse and both differs from stable
Nouns- Classes, subclasses
Classes:
Common
§ conceptual reference = refers to a general concept
Proper
§ unique reference = refer to only one item of reality (usually used only in singular)
Countable
§ count nouns; make distinction between one or more
Uncountable
§ mass nouns
Concrete
§ we can observe them
Abstract
§ exist only in human mind
Animate
§ refer to living
· personal (he or she)
· non-personal
· higher animals (he or she)
· lower animals
Inanimate
§ refer to non-living objects
§ the classes of nouns overlap Þ abstract nouns are uncountable, proper nouns can be animate
Subclasses:
Collective nouns refer to more than one (a herd, a group, a class of children)
these can be singular or plural
Unit nouns they make uncountable nouns countable (a flash of lightening, an act of courage)
Quantifying nouns they quantify, derived from measurable quantities (a kilo, a bottle of, a great deal)
Species nouns (sort, kind, mark, type…)
Common
§ conceptual reference = refers to a general concept
Proper
§ unique reference = refer to only one item of reality (usually used only in singular)
Countable
§ count nouns; make distinction between one or more
Uncountable
§ mass nouns
Concrete
§ we can observe them
Abstract
§ exist only in human mind
Animate
§ refer to living
· personal (he or she)
· non-personal
· higher animals (he or she)
· lower animals
Inanimate
§ refer to non-living objects
§ the classes of nouns overlap Þ abstract nouns are uncountable, proper nouns can be animate
Subclasses:
Collective nouns refer to more than one (a herd, a group, a class of children)
these can be singular or plural
Unit nouns they make uncountable nouns countable (a flash of lightening, an act of courage)
Quantifying nouns they quantify, derived from measurable quantities (a kilo, a bottle of, a great deal)
Species nouns (sort, kind, mark, type…)
Grammatical categories related to word classes
Nouns
determination
§ definite
§ indefinite
number
§ singular
§ plural
gender
§ not observable in the form of the noun; distinguished by pronoun
§ masculine
§ feminine
§ neuter
case
§ common
§ genitive
Pronouns
person
§ 1st (speaker)
§ 2nd (addresser)
§ 3rd (topic)
Number
I – We
Gender
only in 3rd person (He, She, It)
Case
subjective
objective
genitive
§ only in some grammars
Adjectives
grade
§ positive
§ comparative
§ superlative
Verbs
person
§ number – in 3rd person
tense
§ present
§ past
mood
§ indicative
· declarative
· interrogative
§ imperative and exclamatory
§ subjunctive (konjunktiv)
voice
§ active
§ passive
aspect
§ progressive
§ non-progressive
§ perfective
§ non-perfective
modality
§ intrinsic
§ extrinsic
Adverbs
grade
determination
§ definite
§ indefinite
number
§ singular
§ plural
gender
§ not observable in the form of the noun; distinguished by pronoun
§ masculine
§ feminine
§ neuter
case
§ common
§ genitive
Pronouns
person
§ 1st (speaker)
§ 2nd (addresser)
§ 3rd (topic)
Number
I – We
Gender
only in 3rd person (He, She, It)
Case
subjective
objective
genitive
§ only in some grammars
Adjectives
grade
§ positive
§ comparative
§ superlative
Verbs
person
§ number – in 3rd person
tense
§ present
§ past
mood
§ indicative
· declarative
· interrogative
§ imperative and exclamatory
§ subjunctive (konjunktiv)
voice
§ active
§ passive
aspect
§ progressive
§ non-progressive
§ perfective
§ non-perfective
modality
§ intrinsic
§ extrinsic
Adverbs
grade
ELEMENTS OF MORPHOLOGY
ELEMENTS OF MORPHOLOGY:
§ words belong to different classes = word classes / parts of speech (slovní druhy)
Divided on the meaning they carry
a) lexical
b) grammatical
§ compounds words to structure
§ some words have predominantly lexical meaning and grammatical is added
§ conjunctions have predominantly grammatical meaning
§ articles have only grammatical meaning
Possibility of new members entering the word class
opened word classes
new members can enter the language
nouns – blurb, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, interjections
closed word classes
no new members
pronouns, numerals, auxiliary and modal verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles
conversion
a word belonging to a particular word class can belong to any other class (kick, work)
extremely frequent in English; not in Czech
The reference of word classes
§ relationship between linguistic form and the item of reality
Recognized word classes
Nouns
§ refer to objects of reality
Pronouns
§ refer to entities but indirectly, in the given context
§ refer to relationship (possessive pronouns)
§ refer to entities general in their character (everybody)
Numerals
§ refer to quantities of the reference of nouns
Adjectives
§ refer to qualities, features, classes of entities referred to nouns
Verbs
§ refer to processes (activities, events – rain, states – stand)
Adverbs
§ refer to circumstances and manners - hard
§ related to the reference of nouns
§ related to activities, events and states in processes referred to the verb
Prepositions
§ express temporal, abstract and special relationship
Conjunctions
§ grammatical character
§ refer to links among linking elements
and – content of this link is different from but
Particles
not, to, yes, no, oh, well and adverbial particle in phrasal verbs
yes, no, oh and well are considered to be adverbs in some grammars
Articles / determinants
§ only grammatical
Interjections vocalization of human emotions
§ words belong to different classes = word classes / parts of speech (slovní druhy)
Divided on the meaning they carry
a) lexical
b) grammatical
§ compounds words to structure
§ some words have predominantly lexical meaning and grammatical is added
§ conjunctions have predominantly grammatical meaning
§ articles have only grammatical meaning
Possibility of new members entering the word class
opened word classes
new members can enter the language
nouns – blurb, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, interjections
closed word classes
no new members
pronouns, numerals, auxiliary and modal verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles
conversion
a word belonging to a particular word class can belong to any other class (kick, work)
extremely frequent in English; not in Czech
The reference of word classes
§ relationship between linguistic form and the item of reality
Recognized word classes
Nouns
§ refer to objects of reality
Pronouns
§ refer to entities but indirectly, in the given context
§ refer to relationship (possessive pronouns)
§ refer to entities general in their character (everybody)
Numerals
§ refer to quantities of the reference of nouns
Adjectives
§ refer to qualities, features, classes of entities referred to nouns
Verbs
§ refer to processes (activities, events – rain, states – stand)
Adverbs
§ refer to circumstances and manners - hard
§ related to the reference of nouns
§ related to activities, events and states in processes referred to the verb
Prepositions
§ express temporal, abstract and special relationship
Conjunctions
§ grammatical character
§ refer to links among linking elements
and – content of this link is different from but
Particles
not, to, yes, no, oh, well and adverbial particle in phrasal verbs
yes, no, oh and well are considered to be adverbs in some grammars
Articles / determinants
§ only grammatical
Interjections vocalization of human emotions
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Orlické hory - military history
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Orlické hory - military history
Orlické hory (Eagle Mountains) are an area sought out by tourists due to their pristine nature, calm, and military history. Here you will find the best-secured fortresses from the period before World War II. At the time it was the most modern fortified line in Europe, which of course met a fate similar to that of other such areas: no battle was ever fought here.The quality of Czech concrete was tested only once, when the German army tried its ammunition on some bunkers. Neither gunshots nor dynamite worked. They simply withered under the bunkers‘ resistance. The largest sites currently accessible are the infantry barracks: Dobrošov, Hanička and Bouda. Should you decide to travel between them on foot, it’s a three-day, difficult journey from one side of the Orlické hory to the other.
Fortifications in Dobrošov
Visitors can view this concrete stronghold with underground rooms and concrete bunkers accompanied by a guide. This structure, which was built under high levels of secrecy, was almost finished, but was never fully supplied with weapons, ammunition, and rations. Based out of seven bunkers joined by hallways blasted through the mountains, 571 men were meant to fight here. They could stay here for two years underground without contact to their military leaders.
Don’t miss:
Nové Město nad Metují - this castle marries Art Nouveau with traditional craftsmanship in a marvellous manner. The castle, it furnishings and equipment are designed in a not-often-seen singular style.
Litomyšl - the old and modern architecture of this town complement one another with such harmony, that the town was listed in the UNESCO book of cultural heritage.
Šerlich - Masaryk’s old cottage evokes the touristic atmosphere of the period between the first and second world wars. At this time, the cottage was built for members of the Czech Tourists Club, the first professional tourists club at that time.
Velká Deštná - this mountain with bogs on its peak does justice to its name, for it is one of the most rain-drenched spots in the Czech Republic. Showers pass through here as many as 200 times a year.
Deštné - a recreational centre in the Orlické Hory, it’s the ideal starting point for hiking and biking trips.
Easly we can say:
The Czech Republic is an ideal country for active holiday!
Orlické hory (Eagle Mountains) are an area sought out by tourists due to their pristine nature, calm, and military history. Here you will find the best-secured fortresses from the period before World War II. At the time it was the most modern fortified line in Europe, which of course met a fate similar to that of other such areas: no battle was ever fought here.The quality of Czech concrete was tested only once, when the German army tried its ammunition on some bunkers. Neither gunshots nor dynamite worked. They simply withered under the bunkers‘ resistance. The largest sites currently accessible are the infantry barracks: Dobrošov, Hanička and Bouda. Should you decide to travel between them on foot, it’s a three-day, difficult journey from one side of the Orlické hory to the other.
Fortifications in Dobrošov
Visitors can view this concrete stronghold with underground rooms and concrete bunkers accompanied by a guide. This structure, which was built under high levels of secrecy, was almost finished, but was never fully supplied with weapons, ammunition, and rations. Based out of seven bunkers joined by hallways blasted through the mountains, 571 men were meant to fight here. They could stay here for two years underground without contact to their military leaders.
Don’t miss:
Nové Město nad Metují - this castle marries Art Nouveau with traditional craftsmanship in a marvellous manner. The castle, it furnishings and equipment are designed in a not-often-seen singular style.
Litomyšl - the old and modern architecture of this town complement one another with such harmony, that the town was listed in the UNESCO book of cultural heritage.
Šerlich - Masaryk’s old cottage evokes the touristic atmosphere of the period between the first and second world wars. At this time, the cottage was built for members of the Czech Tourists Club, the first professional tourists club at that time.
Velká Deštná - this mountain with bogs on its peak does justice to its name, for it is one of the most rain-drenched spots in the Czech Republic. Showers pass through here as many as 200 times a year.
Deštné - a recreational centre in the Orlické Hory, it’s the ideal starting point for hiking and biking trips.
Easly we can say:
The Czech Republic is an ideal country for active holiday!
Introduction to morphology
SUBJECT OF MORPHOLOGY:
Grammar has 2 areas:
morphology
§ structure of individual words in the linguistic utterances
syntax
§ the way how words are combined into sentences
§ Words don’t occur in isolation; they are part of the system
APPROACH TO GRAMMAR:
Synchronic
looks at the way language operates in particular point of time x occasionally diachronic
Descriptive
we describe how the language is used by native speaker (x prescriptive – school grammar)
Structural
establishes language as a system of interwoven structures
Functional
establishes what kind of function is reflected in given text
§ semantic function (agent)
§ syntactic function (subject)
§ textual function
LINGUISTIC UNITS:
§ Arranged from the smallest unit to the biggest
Phonemes
individual meaningful sounds, which are able to distinguish words
Morphemes
combinations of sounds carrying meaning, syllables or complete words divisible only into phonemes
un / pleas / ant work / s
Lexemes
units referring to one item of reality
may consist of more words
unpleasant = 1 lexeme
Groups / phrases
referring to one item of reality, units composing ® closal elements (větné členy)
My friend John / works very hard.
Clauses / sentences
unit of syntax
Texts
the highest linguistic unit
John has been working very hard. ® He…
§ in morphology mainly morphemes and lexemes; possible also phrases
Grammar has 2 areas:
morphology
§ structure of individual words in the linguistic utterances
syntax
§ the way how words are combined into sentences
§ Words don’t occur in isolation; they are part of the system
APPROACH TO GRAMMAR:
Synchronic
looks at the way language operates in particular point of time x occasionally diachronic
Descriptive
we describe how the language is used by native speaker (x prescriptive – school grammar)
Structural
establishes language as a system of interwoven structures
Functional
establishes what kind of function is reflected in given text
§ semantic function (agent)
§ syntactic function (subject)
§ textual function
LINGUISTIC UNITS:
§ Arranged from the smallest unit to the biggest
Phonemes
individual meaningful sounds, which are able to distinguish words
Morphemes
combinations of sounds carrying meaning, syllables or complete words divisible only into phonemes
un / pleas / ant work / s
Lexemes
units referring to one item of reality
may consist of more words
unpleasant = 1 lexeme
Groups / phrases
referring to one item of reality, units composing ® closal elements (větné členy)
My friend John / works very hard.
Clauses / sentences
unit of syntax
Texts
the highest linguistic unit
John has been working very hard. ® He…
§ in morphology mainly morphemes and lexemes; possible also phrases
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Jeseníky – adrenaline
The highest mountains in the eastern part of the Czech Republic hide a number of surprises and ideal conditions for adrenaline sports. Visitors can ride in mini-cars, try skiing on grass, or skateboarding down ski slopes. Popular local entertainment is so-called tarzanning – on poles from which ladders, ropes, and trapeze bars variably hang, people climb, jump and repel. Olympic medallist, Aleš Valenta, built a site for acrobatic ski jumping into water in the town of ·títy. Visitors can also try all these sports provided they are equipped with safety gear. Jeseníky however is not just about adrenaline. It also features picturesque valleys among the foothills. The area has maintained a number of technical monuments, which are worth a visit. Here tourists will find water-powered mills, there a brick factory, and elsewhere and old mining house or a windmill
Hand-made paper from Velké Losiny
The area below Jeseníky Mountains boasts a rare skill of world renown – the production of handmade paper. The paper is of such quality that famous persons throughout the world order it for their own personal use. The paper is however also used for printing international agreements or as material for graphic artists, painters and illustrators. Visitors to the manufacturing site can see with their own eyes how the paper is made – they grind and they wet remains of linen rags, afterwards the liquid is drained in a sieve, then left to dry, it is later pressed and left to dry completely.
Don’t miss:
Praděd - at its peak, where the snow doesn’t melt until May, stands a TV tower, which has a lookout point at 70 metres above the mountain peak.Ramzová - in this adrenaline sport centre people ride on motorless mini-cars and large pushbikeson a special course, from which you can take the funicular to the top of Pradud and parachute off the mountain.Červenohorské sedlo - a sports centre and ideal starting point for hiking trips to the backbone of the mountains that divide Jeseníky into two exact parts.Jeseník - famous thanks to the world-renowned Priessnitz watertherapy spas.Osoblaha - on the route from Třemešná to Osoblaha, one of few preserved narrow-gauged trainsruns for the delight of tourists and the needs of local residents.
Šumperk - a town in the foothills, where the Catholic Inquisition was at its peak and where witch trials during the late 17th century led to the burning at the stake of thirty innocent women. Not far from here in Velké Losiny fifty-six suspected witches met the same fate.
Hand-made paper from Velké Losiny
The area below Jeseníky Mountains boasts a rare skill of world renown – the production of handmade paper. The paper is of such quality that famous persons throughout the world order it for their own personal use. The paper is however also used for printing international agreements or as material for graphic artists, painters and illustrators. Visitors to the manufacturing site can see with their own eyes how the paper is made – they grind and they wet remains of linen rags, afterwards the liquid is drained in a sieve, then left to dry, it is later pressed and left to dry completely.
Don’t miss:
Praděd - at its peak, where the snow doesn’t melt until May, stands a TV tower, which has a lookout point at 70 metres above the mountain peak.Ramzová - in this adrenaline sport centre people ride on motorless mini-cars and large pushbikeson a special course, from which you can take the funicular to the top of Pradud and parachute off the mountain.Červenohorské sedlo - a sports centre and ideal starting point for hiking trips to the backbone of the mountains that divide Jeseníky into two exact parts.Jeseník - famous thanks to the world-renowned Priessnitz watertherapy spas.Osoblaha - on the route from Třemešná to Osoblaha, one of few preserved narrow-gauged trainsruns for the delight of tourists and the needs of local residents.
Šumperk - a town in the foothills, where the Catholic Inquisition was at its peak and where witch trials during the late 17th century led to the burning at the stake of thirty innocent women. Not far from here in Velké Losiny fifty-six suspected witches met the same fate.
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Beskydy - on horseback
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Beskydy - on horseback
The forest - covered Beskydy are an ecologically pure area, where one can, for at least for a while, forget about the worries of everyday life, visit some of the local farms, or take a ride to visit nature. Agricultural farms provide accommodation directly in the villages’ economic centres. Riding grounds allow visitors to try horseback riding, even beginners. You can borrow a horse at a ranch and with a local tour guide set out on a long trip to the mountains. Less active and more romantic visitors can opt for a horse-drawn carriage. Visitors head to Beskydy not only for relaxation or hiking in the mountains, but also for the open-air museums of traditional buildings in Rožnov pod Radhoštěm, where they can look in awe at dozens of original wooden East Moravian houses in the Valašsko area. Craftsmen still carry on their trades in many of them. Visitors can buy traditional folklore goods, created by clever hands, on site
Regional symbol – the mysterious Radegast
On Radhošt, one of the highest peaks in the Beskydy Mountains, there stands a statue of the mysterious pagan god of the harvest, Radegast, featuring the head of a bull and a horn of plenty. This is a historically unsubstantiated figure, but still a respected symbol and protector of the region. Some people believe that the catastrophic flooding in Moravia in 1997 was caused by the fact that the statue, at that time, was moved down into a valley, where a restoration expert made a copy.
Don’t miss:
Pustevny - several wooden structures designed by architect, Dušan Jurkovič, marry aspects of Art Nouveau with Slavic motifs.
Rožnov - the largest open-air museum, in which you can travel through towns, villages, and a number of water-powered mills.
Kopřivnice - in the unique museum of the renowned Tatra brand, drawing from a 150 year tradition, you can see luxurious models of convertibles and limousines as well as freight trucks built to weather the toughest conditions of the Siberian tundra.
Kunín - the most-prized Baroque castle in Moravia.Hukvaldy - the home of the world-renowned, great composer, Leoš Janáček, merits a visit not only because of his family’s house, but also because of the largest castle ruins in the Czech Republic Hukvaldy Castle
The forest - covered Beskydy are an ecologically pure area, where one can, for at least for a while, forget about the worries of everyday life, visit some of the local farms, or take a ride to visit nature. Agricultural farms provide accommodation directly in the villages’ economic centres. Riding grounds allow visitors to try horseback riding, even beginners. You can borrow a horse at a ranch and with a local tour guide set out on a long trip to the mountains. Less active and more romantic visitors can opt for a horse-drawn carriage. Visitors head to Beskydy not only for relaxation or hiking in the mountains, but also for the open-air museums of traditional buildings in Rožnov pod Radhoštěm, where they can look in awe at dozens of original wooden East Moravian houses in the Valašsko area. Craftsmen still carry on their trades in many of them. Visitors can buy traditional folklore goods, created by clever hands, on site
Regional symbol – the mysterious Radegast
On Radhošt, one of the highest peaks in the Beskydy Mountains, there stands a statue of the mysterious pagan god of the harvest, Radegast, featuring the head of a bull and a horn of plenty. This is a historically unsubstantiated figure, but still a respected symbol and protector of the region. Some people believe that the catastrophic flooding in Moravia in 1997 was caused by the fact that the statue, at that time, was moved down into a valley, where a restoration expert made a copy.
Don’t miss:
Pustevny - several wooden structures designed by architect, Dušan Jurkovič, marry aspects of Art Nouveau with Slavic motifs.
Rožnov - the largest open-air museum, in which you can travel through towns, villages, and a number of water-powered mills.
Kopřivnice - in the unique museum of the renowned Tatra brand, drawing from a 150 year tradition, you can see luxurious models of convertibles and limousines as well as freight trucks built to weather the toughest conditions of the Siberian tundra.
Kunín - the most-prized Baroque castle in Moravia.Hukvaldy - the home of the world-renowned, great composer, Leoš Janáček, merits a visit not only because of his family’s house, but also because of the largest castle ruins in the Czech Republic Hukvaldy Castle
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Moravský kras (Moravian Caverns)
In this, the most explored limestone site on earth, there are over one thousand caves small and large - four of them are accessible to the public, the largest includes the one hundred foot deep canyon, Macocha. As early as 1723, scientists began to suspect that the water flowing at the base of the cavern had to travel somewhere. It was only two hundred years later that the research was finished. Speleologist, Karel Absolon, used steam pumps to pump all the water from the underground stream, Punkva, and he later arrived at Macocha with completely dry feet. Afterwards the space was once again flooded by a 30-metre tall column of water. Visitors of the Moravian Caverns can view the caves` beauty from small boats that travel along the surface of the Punkva Stream, enjoying the information told them by their tour guide.
Don`t miss:
Žďár nad Sázavou - a cemetery and church, Zelená hora, which is registered in the UNESCO book of cultural heritage, is a jewel of Baroque architecture. All its features were conceived using the numbers three, in reference to the Holy Trinity, and five, according to the number of stars adorning St. Jan Nepomucký.
Slavonice - a stylised renaissance town, famous for the many historical films and fairy-tales shot here.
Telč - a medieval town, whose centre is written into the UNESCO book of cultural heritage.
Jihlava - a town with the most extensive and, as of yet, least explored underground passages.
Don`t miss:
Žďár nad Sázavou - a cemetery and church, Zelená hora, which is registered in the UNESCO book of cultural heritage, is a jewel of Baroque architecture. All its features were conceived using the numbers three, in reference to the Holy Trinity, and five, according to the number of stars adorning St. Jan Nepomucký.
Slavonice - a stylised renaissance town, famous for the many historical films and fairy-tales shot here.
Telč - a medieval town, whose centre is written into the UNESCO book of cultural heritage.
Jihlava - a town with the most extensive and, as of yet, least explored underground passages.
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Šumava - on the water
Lush forests, extensive bogs and marshland, and hundreds of streams that run from the Šumava hillsides feed into the country’s most beautiful rivers: Vltava, Vydra, and Otava. The silvery-foamed Vltava is loved by canoeists and rafters, who pack up their tents, bags, and food, to spend their evenings in spartan campsites and prepare their meals on an open fire. This blend of romance and adventure attracts a great number of both local and foreign tourists each year. The Vltava River is literally the essence of the Czech landscape – it trickles as a small brook from the mountains at the Czech border, gathering momentum, and continues to flow beneath the castles of kings eventually spreading on into river valley farmland.
Painter of love and erotica
The life story of the painter of expressive erotica, Egon Schiele (1890 – 1918), is closely tied to Český Krumlov. His mother was born here and Schiele himself returned to Krumlov following his studies in Vienna. He was expelled from Krumlov because of his relations with models, which were too open for the public taste. Despite the expulsion he often returned and painted here. Today Český Krumlov has an important art centre with a gallery of Schiele’s paintings.
Don`t miss:
Pramen Vltavy (Source of the Vltava) - A river with its source in bogs at a height of 1170m above sea level is a must for hikers visiting the Šumava area.
Jezera - the gloomy beauty of the Šumava Forests lights up the many lakes located below the highest mountain peaks. Among the most breathtaking and also scientifically most fascinating are Čertovo, Černé and Laka Lakes.
Rožmberk - a medieval fortress towering above a man-made lake, it is the family estate of the Buquoy nobility and its museum is definitely worth a visit.
Lipno - a dammed reservoir, which has become the regular site of international windsurfing and sailboat regattas. Don`t miss rafting and canoe races on the rapids.
Písek - a medieval town with the oldest stone bridge in Central Europe.Domažlice - Gothic town of the Chodove people, medieval protectors of Bohemia`s borders.
Painter of love and erotica
The life story of the painter of expressive erotica, Egon Schiele (1890 – 1918), is closely tied to Český Krumlov. His mother was born here and Schiele himself returned to Krumlov following his studies in Vienna. He was expelled from Krumlov because of his relations with models, which were too open for the public taste. Despite the expulsion he often returned and painted here. Today Český Krumlov has an important art centre with a gallery of Schiele’s paintings.
Don`t miss:
Pramen Vltavy (Source of the Vltava) - A river with its source in bogs at a height of 1170m above sea level is a must for hikers visiting the Šumava area.
Jezera - the gloomy beauty of the Šumava Forests lights up the many lakes located below the highest mountain peaks. Among the most breathtaking and also scientifically most fascinating are Čertovo, Černé and Laka Lakes.
Rožmberk - a medieval fortress towering above a man-made lake, it is the family estate of the Buquoy nobility and its museum is definitely worth a visit.
Lipno - a dammed reservoir, which has become the regular site of international windsurfing and sailboat regattas. Don`t miss rafting and canoe races on the rapids.
Písek - a medieval town with the oldest stone bridge in Central Europe.Domažlice - Gothic town of the Chodove people, medieval protectors of Bohemia`s borders.
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Českomoravská vrchovina
Whoever is not one for chalking up kilometres and would like to spend their vacation at a less hectic pace, they should accept the welcome of the Českomoravská vrchovina (Bohemian–Moravian Highlands). Despite the fact that this area offers conditions perfect for all types of sport, its beauty comes from something completely different. In the towns and villages of the region people live far away from the hectic pace of the city. Time passes more slowly here. Spend your vacation in a relaxed manner, take a walk around the surrounding area from time to time, where fields and meadows intertwine with forests on picturesque hilltops, savour local culinary specialties (aromatic local cheeses – tvarůžky, mixed beer, smoked sausage, potato pancakes, fresh dark bread, and dumplings with pork smothered in a sour cream sauce) at a pub in a forgotten village, or go to the forest to fill your basket with fresh mushrooms – all this is the Českomoravská vrchovina
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Krušné hory - by paraglider
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Krušné hory - by paraglider
Clouds above you, crossing of latitude and longitude, free space all around, a feeling of complete freedom. The Czech Republic ranks among the world’s best in motorised air acrobatics. Its surfers regularly bring home medals from world championship competitions. Among the most popular sports is paragliding. Favourable wind conditions allow fans of this sport to fly tens of kilometres along the Krušné Hory (Ore Mountains) and enjoy the unique panoramas, the mountain peaks, and the low plains sprinkled with the cones of now extinct volcanoes. The hill, Raná, is considered the Mecca of Czech paragliders. It towers in the middle of flat terrain, a spot that is the starting point for both expert paragliders and beginners as well.
The oldest golf course
Mariánské Lázně boasts one of the oldest golf courses in Central Europe – the sport has been played here since 1905. Since thattime the course has been visited by kings, princes, industrial magnates, and some of sport’s best players. The course literally becomes a golfer’s paradise in early autumn, when the foliage in the neighbouring forests begins to turn gold and red. Nearby lookout points offer clear, long-distance views. Even in the summer it is pleasant here, as the trees protect against the hot sun in the area’s sometimes scorching climate.
Don’t miss:
Komáří hůrka – the longest funicular in the area transports visitors to this unique nature preserve from the town of Krupka two kilometres to the lookout point, which offers unique views. The high-level terrain has earned the respect not only of avid hikers and cyclists but also paragliders, who begin their flights along the Ore Mountains from this spot.
Božídarské rašeliniště – a unique beginner’s trail, winding between mountain bogs and historicmonuments. It’s a reminder of the medieval mining of precious metals that took place in this area.
Karlovy Vary – cosmopolitan spa town and site of the International Film Festival.Soos – area of small marshland volcanoes, reminders of the landscape’s not so distant geological past. Nearby you will find the last volcano to become extinct, Komorní hůrka, which poet and scientist, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, explored in detail.
Kynžvart – this stylistically pure Classical chateau with a rare library and collection of treasures was completely renovated a few years ago. Visitors can enjoy its beauty in its full splendour
Clouds above you, crossing of latitude and longitude, free space all around, a feeling of complete freedom. The Czech Republic ranks among the world’s best in motorised air acrobatics. Its surfers regularly bring home medals from world championship competitions. Among the most popular sports is paragliding. Favourable wind conditions allow fans of this sport to fly tens of kilometres along the Krušné Hory (Ore Mountains) and enjoy the unique panoramas, the mountain peaks, and the low plains sprinkled with the cones of now extinct volcanoes. The hill, Raná, is considered the Mecca of Czech paragliders. It towers in the middle of flat terrain, a spot that is the starting point for both expert paragliders and beginners as well.
The oldest golf course
Mariánské Lázně boasts one of the oldest golf courses in Central Europe – the sport has been played here since 1905. Since thattime the course has been visited by kings, princes, industrial magnates, and some of sport’s best players. The course literally becomes a golfer’s paradise in early autumn, when the foliage in the neighbouring forests begins to turn gold and red. Nearby lookout points offer clear, long-distance views. Even in the summer it is pleasant here, as the trees protect against the hot sun in the area’s sometimes scorching climate.
Don’t miss:
Komáří hůrka – the longest funicular in the area transports visitors to this unique nature preserve from the town of Krupka two kilometres to the lookout point, which offers unique views. The high-level terrain has earned the respect not only of avid hikers and cyclists but also paragliders, who begin their flights along the Ore Mountains from this spot.
Božídarské rašeliniště – a unique beginner’s trail, winding between mountain bogs and historicmonuments. It’s a reminder of the medieval mining of precious metals that took place in this area.
Karlovy Vary – cosmopolitan spa town and site of the International Film Festival.Soos – area of small marshland volcanoes, reminders of the landscape’s not so distant geological past. Nearby you will find the last volcano to become extinct, Komorní hůrka, which poet and scientist, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, explored in detail.
Kynžvart – this stylistically pure Classical chateau with a rare library and collection of treasures was completely renovated a few years ago. Visitors can enjoy its beauty in its full splendour
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Český ráj and České Švýcarsko
Adrenaline flows through the body, overcoming your fear is even more difficult. A mountain climber works his way upward on vertical sandstone towers, looking down at solid ground tens of metres below …with his group members he writes his name in the book of visiting climbers. He is not the first to reach the top, for even a century ago climbers had already headed in this direction. However, this doesn’t detract from his joy. In a moment, he will begin his descent. He places his rope through the hook and lowers himself downward through the air like a spider. The Czech Republic is a land of many sandstone rock towns. Hundreds of their high-towering rock spires can boast ten or more, some up to one hundred metres. Most of these rocks are concentrated in two areas, named Český Ráj (Czech Paradise) and České Švýcarsko (Czech Switzerland), because of their beauty.
Czech Paradise
The protected nature preserve, Czech Paradise, does not bear its name for nothing. Visitors are welcomed by sunlit meadows, pinewood forests, thin rock towers, dark ruins of fortresses, and luxurious castles. Even after several days of exploration, there is still something to see. Lovers of hiking will find a well-developed network of paths at their disposal. These paths lead between canyons and romantic little valleys. Cyclists can take on local roads to obtain their daily dose of kilometres. During their outings they can swim without care in one of the local ponds and in the evening they can all gather for a glass of well-earned beer in one of the traditional pubs. Czech Paradise is just an hour away from the capital of the Czech Republic by car. A comfortable train ride takes a bit longer
Don’t miss:
Pravčická brána - the largest stone bridge in Europe, bowing over a 16-metre depth and spanning a 30-metre length. A comfortable hiking path leads to it from nearby Hřensko.
Hřensko - starting point for hikers into the Labe area sandstone formations.Hrubá skála - one of the most picturesque areas with massive lone rock towers protruding above the crowns of mammoth trees.
Trosky - the ruins of a fortress on two peaks of a basalt heap with a longdistance view of the countryside.
Bezděz - a massive medieval fortress with an interesting past – in its day it ruled over the surrounding area, in time it became a monastery, and later a mere ruin. Afterwards it was renovated and made accessible to tourists.
Czech Paradise
The protected nature preserve, Czech Paradise, does not bear its name for nothing. Visitors are welcomed by sunlit meadows, pinewood forests, thin rock towers, dark ruins of fortresses, and luxurious castles. Even after several days of exploration, there is still something to see. Lovers of hiking will find a well-developed network of paths at their disposal. These paths lead between canyons and romantic little valleys. Cyclists can take on local roads to obtain their daily dose of kilometres. During their outings they can swim without care in one of the local ponds and in the evening they can all gather for a glass of well-earned beer in one of the traditional pubs. Czech Paradise is just an hour away from the capital of the Czech Republic by car. A comfortable train ride takes a bit longer
Don’t miss:
Pravčická brána - the largest stone bridge in Europe, bowing over a 16-metre depth and spanning a 30-metre length. A comfortable hiking path leads to it from nearby Hřensko.
Hřensko - starting point for hikers into the Labe area sandstone formations.Hrubá skála - one of the most picturesque areas with massive lone rock towers protruding above the crowns of mammoth trees.
Trosky - the ruins of a fortress on two peaks of a basalt heap with a longdistance view of the countryside.
Bezděz - a massive medieval fortress with an interesting past – in its day it ruled over the surrounding area, in time it became a monastery, and later a mere ruin. Afterwards it was renovated and made accessible to tourists.
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Jizerské hory - on bike
Jizerské hory are a biker’s paradise. The many plateaus located several thousands of metres above sea level are best tackled with a cross-terrain or mountain bike. Hundreds of kilometres of back highways covered in excellent asphalt complement the flatstone and gravel forest descents and the adventurous paths built throughout this impressive terrain.
All roads in this nature preserve are reserved only for tourists (hikers) and cyclists. Cars can only travel on a small number of back roads that connect small mountain villages to the outside world.
Region of lookout points
A touristic specificity of the Jizerské Hory area is the large number of lookout points. They were built together by local nobility, townships, and local social groups devoted to improving the local mountain landscapes.The most important of these points was constructed from massive stone blocks with a glass-enclosed lookout point on top of a plateau. Restaurants ready to offer tourists and cyclists their services occupy the base of the lookout point. A number of marked tourist trails lead to each of the lookout points from the surrounding area
Don`t miss:
Kristiánov - museum of traditional glass production right in the middle of the forest; famous glass spires and decoration for lamps made by this local glass factory became a renowned world export commodity as early as 1775.
Hejnice - the monastic church built on an old pilgrimage site, where allegedly in the year 1211 two angels appeared to an old craftsman. Since that time thousands of pilgrims have overcome the perilous paths leading to this site, both from across the mountains of Bohemia and the forests of Germany.Štolpich - a mountain road, with many granite retainer walls and small bridges, built a hundred years ago without a single sack of cement.
Jizerka - a small village surrounded by mountain meadows and the Safírový (Saphire) Stream has been a common stop for unsuccessful prospectors of precious metals and successful seekers of semiprecious stones since the 16th century.
Ještěd - the hotel and restaurant in the shape of a rotating cone designed by architect, Karel Hubáček, makes up a landmark visible to half of Bohemia. The building was proclaimed the most beautiful Czech construction of the 20th century.
Liberec - regional capital, whose city centre was developed by modern Functionalist architects for most of the 20th century. Today lovers of water sports travel to the city to enjoy the attractions at one of the city`s two aqua parks..
All roads in this nature preserve are reserved only for tourists (hikers) and cyclists. Cars can only travel on a small number of back roads that connect small mountain villages to the outside world.
Region of lookout points
A touristic specificity of the Jizerské Hory area is the large number of lookout points. They were built together by local nobility, townships, and local social groups devoted to improving the local mountain landscapes.The most important of these points was constructed from massive stone blocks with a glass-enclosed lookout point on top of a plateau. Restaurants ready to offer tourists and cyclists their services occupy the base of the lookout point. A number of marked tourist trails lead to each of the lookout points from the surrounding area
Don`t miss:
Kristiánov - museum of traditional glass production right in the middle of the forest; famous glass spires and decoration for lamps made by this local glass factory became a renowned world export commodity as early as 1775.
Hejnice - the monastic church built on an old pilgrimage site, where allegedly in the year 1211 two angels appeared to an old craftsman. Since that time thousands of pilgrims have overcome the perilous paths leading to this site, both from across the mountains of Bohemia and the forests of Germany.Štolpich - a mountain road, with many granite retainer walls and small bridges, built a hundred years ago without a single sack of cement.
Jizerka - a small village surrounded by mountain meadows and the Safírový (Saphire) Stream has been a common stop for unsuccessful prospectors of precious metals and successful seekers of semiprecious stones since the 16th century.
Ještěd - the hotel and restaurant in the shape of a rotating cone designed by architect, Karel Hubáček, makes up a landmark visible to half of Bohemia. The building was proclaimed the most beautiful Czech construction of the 20th century.
Liberec - regional capital, whose city centre was developed by modern Functionalist architects for most of the 20th century. Today lovers of water sports travel to the city to enjoy the attractions at one of the city`s two aqua parks..
The Czech Republic-Tips for the trips-Krkonoše - in the mountains
Krkonoše - in the mountains
The highest mountain range between the Alps and Scandinavia – this is Krkonoše (Giant Mountains), the mountains of the fairy–tale ruler, Krakonoše. The locals describe him as a kind, grey-bearded, old man, who sees to the application of justice in the mountains and their foothills. He also commands the winds, snowstorms, and hail.
The tallest of Czech mountain chains, Krkonoše, was given the status of a national park due to the landscape’s unique beauty. It has also become a destination for thousands of tourists, who don’t hesitate to put on their boots and tame the mountains even at the price of aching feet, sweat, and discomfort. Krkonoše are most beautiful at moments when the sun illuminates the mountain peaks while the valleys are still filled with fog, through which only the tops of the tourist lookout points peak out from the nearby hills. The century old mountain cottages or cabins still today draw in and serve eager to visit tourists. Here theycan get a good meal and a good night’s sleep, relax, or simply come in from the rain for moment.
BikeparkJust above Špindlerův Mlýn, a built up bikepark with a specially designed downhill track invites all adrenaline sports fans to take a wild ride. A seated funicular takes cyclists and their bikes up the hill from where they begin their downhill adventure. Most of them are surprised to learn that the ride is not so threatening as it looks. In a couple of minutes the leisure time cyclist isalready at their destination. If they rode three times as fast they could compete with professional racers
Don`t miss:
Sněžka - the highest point in the Czech Republic (1602 m), it towers above the surrounding landscape by a good two hundred metres. The several hour hike to long-distance lookout points is, on a clear day, certainly worth your while. Less avid tourists can take the funicular from the town, Pec pod Sněžkou, to the mountaintop.
Source of the Labe (Elbe) River - located in the mountains but still easily accessible, this symbolic source of one of Europe`s largest rivers has become a popular and frequently visited tourist destination.
Harrachov - this mountain settlement is connected to the outside world by a unique rack railway, which leads up a steep hill. Golf fans come here to play on the highest golf course in the Czech Republic.
The highest mountain range between the Alps and Scandinavia – this is Krkonoše (Giant Mountains), the mountains of the fairy–tale ruler, Krakonoše. The locals describe him as a kind, grey-bearded, old man, who sees to the application of justice in the mountains and their foothills. He also commands the winds, snowstorms, and hail.
The tallest of Czech mountain chains, Krkonoše, was given the status of a national park due to the landscape’s unique beauty. It has also become a destination for thousands of tourists, who don’t hesitate to put on their boots and tame the mountains even at the price of aching feet, sweat, and discomfort. Krkonoše are most beautiful at moments when the sun illuminates the mountain peaks while the valleys are still filled with fog, through which only the tops of the tourist lookout points peak out from the nearby hills. The century old mountain cottages or cabins still today draw in and serve eager to visit tourists. Here theycan get a good meal and a good night’s sleep, relax, or simply come in from the rain for moment.
BikeparkJust above Špindlerův Mlýn, a built up bikepark with a specially designed downhill track invites all adrenaline sports fans to take a wild ride. A seated funicular takes cyclists and their bikes up the hill from where they begin their downhill adventure. Most of them are surprised to learn that the ride is not so threatening as it looks. In a couple of minutes the leisure time cyclist isalready at their destination. If they rode three times as fast they could compete with professional racers
Don`t miss:
Sněžka - the highest point in the Czech Republic (1602 m), it towers above the surrounding landscape by a good two hundred metres. The several hour hike to long-distance lookout points is, on a clear day, certainly worth your while. Less avid tourists can take the funicular from the town, Pec pod Sněžkou, to the mountaintop.
Source of the Labe (Elbe) River - located in the mountains but still easily accessible, this symbolic source of one of Europe`s largest rivers has become a popular and frequently visited tourist destination.
Harrachov - this mountain settlement is connected to the outside world by a unique rack railway, which leads up a steep hill. Golf fans come here to play on the highest golf course in the Czech Republic.
The Czech Republic and active holiday
The Czech Republic is a country that seems as though it was made for those seeking relaxation or excitement. Visitors can not only expand their cultural horizons and knowledge of history here; they can, so to speak, "warm up" while pursuing their sports or hiking objectives.
The Czech Republic is an ideal country for active holiday, where you can relax as well as improve your physical condition. In case you decide for relaxation, you have a choice of various wellness offers. Lovers of adrenaline sports will be pleased by wide possibilities of bungee jumping.
Thanks to the beautiful and colourful nature there are ideal conditions for tourism. It can be realised in the mountains, which surround our country, but also in the romantic valleys of our rivers. Nature lovers can find a plethora of well-marked hiking and cyclo-tourist trails here, especially in the Šumava (Bohemian Forest), the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands, the Polabí Region and Southern Moravia. Many routes follow the borders of the republic and link up with the tourist or cyclist routes of the neighbouring countries. The ones, who are not found of long walking tours, can have a walk in the forest, combined for example with picking mushrooms.
Mountain climbers can have a good time in the sand stone rocks, followers of winter sports in the mountains. Bohemian Paradise, the Kokořín area and a range of others provide people with an opportunity to test their skills while tackling a variety of climbing routes.
In winter, modern mountain centres and skiing grounds, particularly those in the Krkonoše Mountains, are open for winter sports enthusiasts. A country of ice hockey players the Czech Republic offers modern winter stadiums as well as fishponds turned into skating rinks for visitors.
Golf lovers do not come off badly as well. They have seven 8.hole fields at their disposal. They will certainly appreciate the more than dozen golf courses, all situated in magnificent natural settings. The most renowned among them can be found in the spa resorts of Karlovy Vary and Mariánské Lázně.
Horse riders can combine their hobby with a stay in one of the farms.
There are many water areas in various places in the Czech Republic, suitable for relaxation as well as the whole range of sports. Several water dams offer good possibilities of bathing, swimming, water skiing and windsurfing (Lipno, Orlík and Nové Mlýny) and of boat or raft trips. In the Czech Republic it is very popular to run down the river. If you wish to leave the hustle and bustle of urban life and explore the lovely Czech landscape from above, you can avail yourselves of the services, including observation flights, of the numerous sports airports scattered throughout the country. The clients can select from rogalo flying, sight seeing flights in balloons, sport airplanes or parachuting.
The Czech Republic is an ideal country for active holiday, where you can relax as well as improve your physical condition. In case you decide for relaxation, you have a choice of various wellness offers. Lovers of adrenaline sports will be pleased by wide possibilities of bungee jumping.
Thanks to the beautiful and colourful nature there are ideal conditions for tourism. It can be realised in the mountains, which surround our country, but also in the romantic valleys of our rivers. Nature lovers can find a plethora of well-marked hiking and cyclo-tourist trails here, especially in the Šumava (Bohemian Forest), the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands, the Polabí Region and Southern Moravia. Many routes follow the borders of the republic and link up with the tourist or cyclist routes of the neighbouring countries. The ones, who are not found of long walking tours, can have a walk in the forest, combined for example with picking mushrooms.
Mountain climbers can have a good time in the sand stone rocks, followers of winter sports in the mountains. Bohemian Paradise, the Kokořín area and a range of others provide people with an opportunity to test their skills while tackling a variety of climbing routes.
In winter, modern mountain centres and skiing grounds, particularly those in the Krkonoše Mountains, are open for winter sports enthusiasts. A country of ice hockey players the Czech Republic offers modern winter stadiums as well as fishponds turned into skating rinks for visitors.
Golf lovers do not come off badly as well. They have seven 8.hole fields at their disposal. They will certainly appreciate the more than dozen golf courses, all situated in magnificent natural settings. The most renowned among them can be found in the spa resorts of Karlovy Vary and Mariánské Lázně.
Horse riders can combine their hobby with a stay in one of the farms.
There are many water areas in various places in the Czech Republic, suitable for relaxation as well as the whole range of sports. Several water dams offer good possibilities of bathing, swimming, water skiing and windsurfing (Lipno, Orlík and Nové Mlýny) and of boat or raft trips. In the Czech Republic it is very popular to run down the river. If you wish to leave the hustle and bustle of urban life and explore the lovely Czech landscape from above, you can avail yourselves of the services, including observation flights, of the numerous sports airports scattered throughout the country. The clients can select from rogalo flying, sight seeing flights in balloons, sport airplanes or parachuting.
The Czech Republic-Mountain tourism
Thanks to the diversity of landscapes the Czech Republic offers ideal conditions for walking tours. An unusual rich network of well-marked footpaths evenly covers the whole territory and disables to lose one’s way even in the remote areas of the country.
Among the most popular tourist regions are Krkonoše and Šumava. Walking tours fans should not miss the romantic sandstone rock “towns” in Český Ráj (Czech Paradise), or some of the wild river valleys, e.g. the valley of the Dyje River in Moravia, the Vydra River in Šumava, and the Střela River in western Bohemia. Many of the marked footpaths run through the areas near the borders. Many of them cross the borders and continue in the neighbouring countries. Detailed tourist maps can be purchased in information centres, bookshops and at small vendors in the whole country. Klub českých turistů (Club of Czech tourists) is organizing interesting tourist programs.
Among the most popular tourist regions are Krkonoše and Šumava. Walking tours fans should not miss the romantic sandstone rock “towns” in Český Ráj (Czech Paradise), or some of the wild river valleys, e.g. the valley of the Dyje River in Moravia, the Vydra River in Šumava, and the Střela River in western Bohemia. Many of the marked footpaths run through the areas near the borders. Many of them cross the borders and continue in the neighbouring countries. Detailed tourist maps can be purchased in information centres, bookshops and at small vendors in the whole country. Klub českých turistů (Club of Czech tourists) is organizing interesting tourist programs.
THE CZECH REPUBLIC
Welcome to a place that can justifiably be referred to as a melting pot of European civilizations. Although devoid of the benefits of proximity to the sea, the Czech Republic, located in the heart of Central Europe, prides itself on magnificent scenery and an immense cultural heritage, an asset that fully offsets this apparent drawback. The concentration of so many tourist destinations in such a small area is unique even in the European context.
The country is enclosed by a belt of extensive mountain ranges and the majority of its frontiers run along this natural boundary. Although in terms of size (less than 79 thousand square kilometres) and number of inhabitants (10.2 million), the Czech Republic ranks among the medium-size to small European countries (it is somewhat smaller than Austria and somewhat larger than Belgium and its population practically equals that of Hungary), its territory is a diverse mosaic of regions. That is why it is worth taking the effort to travel to individual regions in order to get to know their distinctive features. Moreover, it will not take much time as you can travel from one end of the Czech Republic to the other in a few hours.
Many foreigners have chosen this country as their temporary or even permanent home, which bears witness to the fact that the Czech Republic is a pleasant country to live in. In the 1990s, Prague was even compared to the Paris of the 1930s. Not only the forces of nature have shaped and moulded the picturesque Czech landscape; human beings have also set, like little beads, numerous historical towns, thousands of small villages and the glistening expanses of fish ponds into the countryside. To climb the summits of Czech mountains is a relatively easy task. The highest of them is the Sněžka, reaches just to a height of 1,602 meters above sea level. You will be rewarded by breathtaking views as you will be able to see a large part of the country as though from a bird's eye view. The place with the lowest altitude can be found in Hřensko, on a site where the River Labe (Elbe) leaves the Czech Republic and enters Germany.A host of rivers, including the Labe, the "national" River Vltava (Moldau), which forms the axis of Bohemia, the Morava, the axis of Moravia, and many others, are suitable for boat cruises and water tourism. The Czech Republic takes good care of its visitors. There is a wide range of accommodation facilities, restaurants and a well-functioning transportation network. A wealth of historical towns, castles and chateaux are prepared to open their gates wide to visitors; alternately, those tired of the hustle and bustle of civilization can relax amidst beautiful scenery.
The country is enclosed by a belt of extensive mountain ranges and the majority of its frontiers run along this natural boundary. Although in terms of size (less than 79 thousand square kilometres) and number of inhabitants (10.2 million), the Czech Republic ranks among the medium-size to small European countries (it is somewhat smaller than Austria and somewhat larger than Belgium and its population practically equals that of Hungary), its territory is a diverse mosaic of regions. That is why it is worth taking the effort to travel to individual regions in order to get to know their distinctive features. Moreover, it will not take much time as you can travel from one end of the Czech Republic to the other in a few hours.
Many foreigners have chosen this country as their temporary or even permanent home, which bears witness to the fact that the Czech Republic is a pleasant country to live in. In the 1990s, Prague was even compared to the Paris of the 1930s. Not only the forces of nature have shaped and moulded the picturesque Czech landscape; human beings have also set, like little beads, numerous historical towns, thousands of small villages and the glistening expanses of fish ponds into the countryside. To climb the summits of Czech mountains is a relatively easy task. The highest of them is the Sněžka, reaches just to a height of 1,602 meters above sea level. You will be rewarded by breathtaking views as you will be able to see a large part of the country as though from a bird's eye view. The place with the lowest altitude can be found in Hřensko, on a site where the River Labe (Elbe) leaves the Czech Republic and enters Germany.A host of rivers, including the Labe, the "national" River Vltava (Moldau), which forms the axis of Bohemia, the Morava, the axis of Moravia, and many others, are suitable for boat cruises and water tourism. The Czech Republic takes good care of its visitors. There is a wide range of accommodation facilities, restaurants and a well-functioning transportation network. A wealth of historical towns, castles and chateaux are prepared to open their gates wide to visitors; alternately, those tired of the hustle and bustle of civilization can relax amidst beautiful scenery.
IRREGULAR VERBS-Bring, Broadcast, Burst,
Bring – brought – brought přinést
Don´t forget to bring your books with you.
Bring Helen a present.
Broadcast – broadcast – broadcast vysílat
They began broadcasting in 1922.
I don´t like to broadcast the fact that my father owns the company.
Burst – burst – burst prasknout
That balloon will burst if you blow it up any more.
The dam burst under the wight of water.
Shells were bursting all around us.
Be bursting
The roads are bursting with cars.
Be bursting to
She was bursting to tell him the good news.
Don´t forget to bring your books with you.
Bring Helen a present.
Broadcast – broadcast – broadcast vysílat
They began broadcasting in 1922.
I don´t like to broadcast the fact that my father owns the company.
Burst – burst – burst prasknout
That balloon will burst if you blow it up any more.
The dam burst under the wight of water.
Shells were bursting all around us.
Be bursting
The roads are bursting with cars.
Be bursting to
She was bursting to tell him the good news.
IRREGULAR VERBS-Bleed, Blow, Break, Breed
Bleed – bled – bled krvácet
My finger´s bleeding.
He was bleeding from a gash on his head.
My exwife is bleeding me for every penny I have.
To spread from one area of sth to another area
Keep the paint fairly dry so that the colours don´t bleed into each other.
Blow – blew – blown foukat
You´re not blowing hard enough!
He drew on his cigarette and blew out a strem of smoke.
Break – broke – broken zlomit, rozbít
She dropped the plate and it broke into pieces.
She fell off a ladder and broke her arm.
He broke the chocolate in two.
My watch has broken.
We broke our journey.
She broke the silence by coughing.
Broke free
He finally managed to break free from his attacker.
Break away from sb/sth
The prisoner broke away from his guards.
Break down
The telephone systém has broken down.
Break for sth
She had to hold him back as he tried to break for the door.
Break in
Burglars had broke in while we were away.
Break into sth
We had our car broken into last week.
Break off
The back section of the plane had broken off.
Break out
They had escaped to America shortly before war broke out in 1939,
break up
The ship broke up on the rocks.
Breed – bred – bred chovat
Many animals breed only at certain times of the year.
The rabbits are bred for their long coats.
My finger´s bleeding.
He was bleeding from a gash on his head.
My exwife is bleeding me for every penny I have.
To spread from one area of sth to another area
Keep the paint fairly dry so that the colours don´t bleed into each other.
Blow – blew – blown foukat
You´re not blowing hard enough!
He drew on his cigarette and blew out a strem of smoke.
Break – broke – broken zlomit, rozbít
She dropped the plate and it broke into pieces.
She fell off a ladder and broke her arm.
He broke the chocolate in two.
My watch has broken.
We broke our journey.
She broke the silence by coughing.
Broke free
He finally managed to break free from his attacker.
Break away from sb/sth
The prisoner broke away from his guards.
Break down
The telephone systém has broken down.
Break for sth
She had to hold him back as he tried to break for the door.
Break in
Burglars had broke in while we were away.
Break into sth
We had our car broken into last week.
Break off
The back section of the plane had broken off.
Break out
They had escaped to America shortly before war broke out in 1939,
break up
The ship broke up on the rocks.
Breed – bred – bred chovat
Many animals breed only at certain times of the year.
The rabbits are bred for their long coats.
IRREGULAR VERBS-Bet, Bid, Bind,Bite
Bet – bet, betted – bet, betted vsadit se
You have to be over 16 to bet.
He bet two thousand on final score of the game.
She bet me 20 pounds that I wouldn´t do it.
I bet we´re too late. You can bet the moment I sit down, the phone will ring.
prediction things
I nearly died when he told me. I bet!
Used to tell sb, that you do not believe what they have just said.
I am going to tell her what I think of her. Yeah, I bet!
wouldn´t bet on it/ don´t bet on it – you don´t think that something is very likely
She´ll soon get used to the idea. I wouldn´t bet on it.
Bid – bade, bid – bade, bid, bidden nabídnout
I bid two thousand for the painting.
TENDER: A French firm will be bidding for the contact.
ATTEMPT : The team is bidding to retain its place in the league.
What am I bid? Or What am I bid for this vase?
Bind – bound – bound svázat
to tie sb/sth with rope
She was bound to a chair.
They bound his hands together.
unite
Organisations such as schools and clubs bind a community together.
She thought that having his child would bind him to her forever.
make sb do sth
He had been bound to secrecy.
bind sb over – He was bound over for trial.
Bite – bit – bitten kousat, uštknout
She was bitten by the family dog.
Stop bitting your nails.
Does your dog bite?
We were badly bitten by moskitoes.
Most European spiders don´t bite.
Be bitten by sth
He´s been bitten by teh travel bug.
Bite the bullet
bite the dust
Thousands of small businesses bite the dust every year.
Bite back at sb/sth
She bit back her anger.
You have to be over 16 to bet.
He bet two thousand on final score of the game.
She bet me 20 pounds that I wouldn´t do it.
I bet we´re too late. You can bet the moment I sit down, the phone will ring.
prediction things
I nearly died when he told me. I bet!
Used to tell sb, that you do not believe what they have just said.
I am going to tell her what I think of her. Yeah, I bet!
wouldn´t bet on it/ don´t bet on it – you don´t think that something is very likely
She´ll soon get used to the idea. I wouldn´t bet on it.
Bid – bade, bid – bade, bid, bidden nabídnout
I bid two thousand for the painting.
TENDER: A French firm will be bidding for the contact.
ATTEMPT : The team is bidding to retain its place in the league.
What am I bid? Or What am I bid for this vase?
Bind – bound – bound svázat
to tie sb/sth with rope
She was bound to a chair.
They bound his hands together.
unite
Organisations such as schools and clubs bind a community together.
She thought that having his child would bind him to her forever.
make sb do sth
He had been bound to secrecy.
bind sb over – He was bound over for trial.
Bite – bit – bitten kousat, uštknout
She was bitten by the family dog.
Stop bitting your nails.
Does your dog bite?
We were badly bitten by moskitoes.
Most European spiders don´t bite.
Be bitten by sth
He´s been bitten by teh travel bug.
Bite the bullet
bite the dust
Thousands of small businesses bite the dust every year.
Bite back at sb/sth
She bit back her anger.
IRREGULAR VERBS-bend, bereave, beseech, beset
bend – bent – bent ohýbat se, ohnout se
He bent and kissed her.
His dark head bent over her.
She bent forward to pick up the newspaper.
He bent his head and kised her.
She was bend over her desk writing a letter.
Bend your mind – to think very hard about sth
bend the truth – to say sth that is not completely true
bend sb´s ear – to talk sb a lot about sth
bend sb to sth – He manipulates people and tries to bend them to his will. ( make them do what he wants )
bereave – bereft, bereaved – bereft, bereaved uloupit, přijít o
bereft of ideas/ hope
He was utterly bereft when his wife died.
Beseech – besought, beseeched – besought, beseeched prosit, žadonit
Let him go, I beseech you!
Beset – beset – beset obklopit
The team was beset by injury all season.It´s one of the most difficult problems besetting our modern way of life
He bent and kissed her.
His dark head bent over her.
She bent forward to pick up the newspaper.
He bent his head and kised her.
She was bend over her desk writing a letter.
Bend your mind – to think very hard about sth
bend the truth – to say sth that is not completely true
bend sb´s ear – to talk sb a lot about sth
bend sb to sth – He manipulates people and tries to bend them to his will. ( make them do what he wants )
bereave – bereft, bereaved – bereft, bereaved uloupit, přijít o
bereft of ideas/ hope
He was utterly bereft when his wife died.
Beseech – besought, beseeched – besought, beseeched prosit, žadonit
Let him go, I beseech you!
Beset – beset – beset obklopit
The team was beset by injury all season.It´s one of the most difficult problems besetting our modern way of life
IRREGULAR VERBS-Arise, Awake, Bear, Beat
Arise – arose – arisen povstat, vyskytnout se
A new crisis has arisen.
We keep them informed of any changes as they arise.
Children should be disciplined when the need arises.
A storm arose during the night.
Awake – awoke – awoken vzbudit se
I awoke from a deep sleep.
He awoke to find her gone.
Her voice awoke the sleeping child.
Bear – bore – borne nést, nosit, snést
The pain was almost more than he could bear.
She couldn´t bear the thought of losing him.
I can´t bear having cats in the house.
How can you bear to eat that stuff?
He can´t bear being laughed at.
He can´t bear to be laughed at.
Beat – beat – beaten tlouct
to defeat sb in a game or competition
Their recent wins have proved tehy´re still the ones to beat.
To get control of sth
The government´s main aim is to beat inflation.
To be too difficult for sb
It beats me.
What beats me is how it was done so quickly ( I don´t understand how )
We were up and off early to beat the heat.
To avoid sth
If we go early we should beat the traffic.
To hit sb many times, usually very hard
Somebody was beating at the door.
Hail- stones beat against the window.
An elderly man was found beaten to death.
A regular sound or movement
She´s alive, her heart is still beating.
The bird was beating its wings.
We heard the drums beating.
to mix sth
Beat the eggs up to a frothy consistency.
To do or be better than sth
Nothing beats home cooking.
They want to beat the speed record. ( Go faster then anyone before )
A new crisis has arisen.
We keep them informed of any changes as they arise.
Children should be disciplined when the need arises.
A storm arose during the night.
Awake – awoke – awoken vzbudit se
I awoke from a deep sleep.
He awoke to find her gone.
Her voice awoke the sleeping child.
Bear – bore – borne nést, nosit, snést
The pain was almost more than he could bear.
She couldn´t bear the thought of losing him.
I can´t bear having cats in the house.
How can you bear to eat that stuff?
He can´t bear being laughed at.
He can´t bear to be laughed at.
Beat – beat – beaten tlouct
to defeat sb in a game or competition
Their recent wins have proved tehy´re still the ones to beat.
To get control of sth
The government´s main aim is to beat inflation.
To be too difficult for sb
It beats me.
What beats me is how it was done so quickly ( I don´t understand how )
We were up and off early to beat the heat.
To avoid sth
If we go early we should beat the traffic.
To hit sb many times, usually very hard
Somebody was beating at the door.
Hail- stones beat against the window.
An elderly man was found beaten to death.
A regular sound or movement
She´s alive, her heart is still beating.
The bird was beating its wings.
We heard the drums beating.
to mix sth
Beat the eggs up to a frothy consistency.
To do or be better than sth
Nothing beats home cooking.
They want to beat the speed record. ( Go faster then anyone before )
Economy and transport
Canadian economy is traditionally based on natural resources and agriculture. Canada is the world’s second largest exporter of wheat that is mainly planted on the prairies in the interior of the country. Nevertheless, Canada is not only an agricultural country; some regions are known as industrial centres – e.g. Ontario. Forestry For is also important for the Canadian economy because forests cover 44% of the land area.
In Canada there can be found almost all ores and energy raw materials. In 1896 in the Yukon Territory gold was discovered and this accident started a golden rush all over the world. People from all countries travelled to Yukon to wash out gold.
Canada’s largest source is in minerals. It is first in the exploitation[i] [.1] of nickel, zinc and uranium; second in cadmium; third in lead, gas and platinum; fourth in copper[ii] and magnesium[iii]. It is also an important producer of gold, silver and aluminium. The exploitation of iron ore, oil[iv] and coal is less important.
Transport has a key role in Canada, because distances are great. The east-west Canadian Pacific railway built in 1885 and the Canadian National railway contributed a lot to the development of the prairie agriculture. One of Canada’s major highways is the Trans-Canada route; Vancouver is one of its major ports. Canada has more than 93.000 km of railroads and almost 1 million km of roads. Air traffic is very important for long distances in Canada - the largest international airports are Montreal, Toronto, Ottawa, Gander and Vancouver. The largest ports are Vancouver, Thunder Bay, Port-Cartier, and Sept-Îles.Thanks to agriculture, forestry, fishing and the mineral industry, Canada belongs among the richest countries in the world (G7). Canada also has one of largest GNP (Gross National Product) in the world - over $ 20.000 per each inhabitant. Its market economy is closely linked with that of the United States
[i] těžba
[ii] měď
[iii] hořčík
[iv] ropa
Page: 4 [.1]
In Canada there can be found almost all ores and energy raw materials. In 1896 in the Yukon Territory gold was discovered and this accident started a golden rush all over the world. People from all countries travelled to Yukon to wash out gold.
Canada’s largest source is in minerals. It is first in the exploitation[i] [.1] of nickel, zinc and uranium; second in cadmium; third in lead, gas and platinum; fourth in copper[ii] and magnesium[iii]. It is also an important producer of gold, silver and aluminium. The exploitation of iron ore, oil[iv] and coal is less important.
Transport has a key role in Canada, because distances are great. The east-west Canadian Pacific railway built in 1885 and the Canadian National railway contributed a lot to the development of the prairie agriculture. One of Canada’s major highways is the Trans-Canada route; Vancouver is one of its major ports. Canada has more than 93.000 km of railroads and almost 1 million km of roads. Air traffic is very important for long distances in Canada - the largest international airports are Montreal, Toronto, Ottawa, Gander and Vancouver. The largest ports are Vancouver, Thunder Bay, Port-Cartier, and Sept-Îles.Thanks to agriculture, forestry, fishing and the mineral industry, Canada belongs among the richest countries in the world (G7). Canada also has one of largest GNP (Gross National Product) in the world - over $ 20.000 per each inhabitant. Its market economy is closely linked with that of the United States
[i] těžba
[ii] měď
[iii] hořčík
[iv] ropa
Page: 4 [.1]
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